
Glass 



iSisii 



Book_L 




2^ 
I? 



MANUAL 



OF THB 



Elementary Course of Study 



FOB THE 



Common Schools of Wisconsin 



SIXTEENTH EDITION 



Rewritten 

O. p. GARY 

State Superintendent 



Note — ^Thls manual is designed not only for the present, but also 
I for the .future use of the common schools. The teachers of these 
schools, and the clerks of the district boards, who may receive copies, 
should preserve them. 




MADISON 
Democrat Printing Company, State Printer 



! 1917 



MANUAL 



OF THE 



Elementary Course of Study 



FOB THE 



Common Schools of Wisconsin 



^'h 



SIXTEENTH EDITION 



Rewritten 



C. P. GARY 

State Superintendent 



Note — This Manual is designed not only for the present, but also for 
the future use of the common schools. The teachers of these schools, 
and the clerks of the district boards, who may receive copies, should 
preserve them. 



MADISON 

Democrat Printing Company, State Printer 

1917 



/ 



I 9/ J 



INTRODUCTION 



The Manual has in this edition been completely rewritten. 
The outlines have all been prepared by members of the depart- 
ment except the Music which was prepared by Professor Dy- 
kema of the University, and the Writing by Mr. Book of Mil- 
waukee. The responsibility for the Manual as a whole was 
placed upon Mr. Larson and Mr. Thomson of the state depart- 
ment. The former prepared the outlines in Arithmetic, His- 
tory, and Civil Government, and the latter the outlines in Read- 
ing, Spelling, Physiology and Hygiene, and Geography. Mr. 
Goddard prepared the outlines in Nature Study and Agricul- 
ture, Miss Conley in Domestic Science, Mr. Dorrans in Manual 
Training, and Miss Bush in Drawing. Miss Bronsky and Miss 
Reynolds cooperated with Mr. Larson in the preparation of the 
outline in Language. Mr. Thomson cooperated with Mr. Book 
in the preparation of the outline in Writing. 

It has seemed best to the superintendent to discuss many 
pedagogical questions and to make many suggestions to teachers 
in connection with the Manual. This adds greatly to its bulk, 
and from that point of view is objectionable; but the value of 
having a brief pedagogical treatise in immediate connection with 
the subject matter has seemed highly desirabfe. The effort has 
been made to make it an indispensable help to the teachers in 
rural schools. 

Criticisms and suggestions in respect to the Manual will be 
welcome. All constructive suggestions will be helpful in future 
revisions. 




D. of D. 
NOV 24 1917 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Introduction ii 

General suggestions 1-8 

Scope of course of study 8-10 

Org-anization of -a one-room country school 10-13 

Daily program, for a district school 14—15 

Reading 

I. General suggestions 16-24 

II. Course of study. . 25-45 

III. Tests for graduation 45 

IV, References for teachers 45 

School library 46 

Spelling 

I. General sugg^estions 47—48 

II. Course of study 49—55 

III. Tests for graduation 5 5 

IV. References 55-56 

Language 

1. General suggestions 5 7-62 

II. Course of study 62-87 

III. Suggestions with regard to special phases of the work 87-101 

IV. Tests and examinations 101-102 

V. References 102 

VI. Language outline 103-108 

Writing 

I. General suggestions ^ 109-114 

II. Course of study 114-116 

III. Tests for graduation 116 

IV. References 116 

Arithmetic 

I. General suggestions 117-124 

II. Course of study 125-133 

III. Suggestions with reference to teaching special topics 134-158 

IV. Tests and examinations 15 8-159 

V. References 159-160 

Geography 

I. General suggestions 161 

II. Course of study 162-186 

III. Tests for graduation 186 

IV. References 187 

Nature Study 

I. General suggestions 188-189 

II. Outline of topics 189-216 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Agriculture 

I. General suggestions 217-218 

II. Course of study 218-220 

III. Treatment of topics 220-230 

IV. Tests and examinations 230-231 

V. References . . 231-235 

Hygniene, sanitation, and physiology 

I. General suggestions 236-237 

II. Course of study 237-252 

III. Tests for graduation 252 

IV. References 253 

History 

I. General suggestions 254-257 

II. Course of study 258-280 

III. Special topic 280-284 

rv. Tests and examinations 285-286 

V. References 286-287 

Civil government 

I. General suggestions 288-290 

II. Course of study 290-304 

III. Suggestions with reference to the organization of a so- 
ciety or club 3 04-309 

IV. Tests for graduation 309 

V. References 310 

Music * 

1. General suggestions 311-314 

II. Work to be done 314-322 

III. Special topics 322-324 

IV. Summary 324 

V. Reference books 325 

Drawing 

I. Suggestions to teachers 326-329 

H. Course of study 329-341 

III. References 341 

Manual training 

I. General suggestions 342-345 

II. Course of study . 345-360 

III. References 360 

Domestic science 

I. General suggestions 361-362 

II. Outline of work 362-368 

III. References 368-369 

Diploma examinations 370-373 

A standard school 374-379 

Index 381-387 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 



The. numerous tasks facing the rural-school teacher from day 
to day, make it difficult if not impossible for her to become a 
master of all the details of her daily work. Attention is called 
here to some of the larger things which she may do with reason- 
able success, and which, if mastered, will go a long way toward 
eliminating the smaller difficulties. 

1. Distinguish between the memoriter and the rational 

studies. Rural-school teachers w^aste much time by their fail- 
ure to distinguish between drill studies and rational studies. 
Drill studies are branches that aim to secure as a result definite 
mechanical execution or instant and accurate response as in 
spelling or the multiplication table. Such branches need little 
discussion. Practice is the road to success. The cardinal drill 
studies are spelling, writing, and the parts of arithmetic which 
have to do with skill in computation. Constant repetition under 
right conditions is the sure means by which good spellers, good 
writers and rapid calculators are developed. Teachers should 
make up their minds to this and drill for results. 

On the other har.d much time is wasted and the mental powers 
deadened because repetition is demanded in branches where 
reason should rule. This fault is illustrated in the teaching of 
History, Reading and Geography, especially in the upper grades : 
Memoriter repetition of the text in history is of little value. The 
student should be held to a rational statement of the substance 
of the lesson and should be obliged to prove his understanding of 
it so far as possible. 

The teacher should classify the branches to be taught into 
the memoriter and the rational. She should likewise discrim- 
inate in each branch between the mechanical parts and the 
rational parts. The rational parts should be discussed pro and 
con. The mechanical parts should receive a sufficient amount of 
drill to insure accuracy and rapidity. 

2. Teach the pupils how to study. The teacher should in- 
vestigate the pupil's methods of study, that is to say, should 
find what they do when they study. To do this, she should 



2 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

observe the results given back in recitation ; she should ask ques- 
tions in class that will reveal not merely what they have learned, 
but how they have learned. She should supplement the knowl- 
edge thus gained by observing their methods of work at their 
seats. 

Along with this process the teacher should teach pupils how 
to study to better advantage; this she should do consciously 
and persistently. She should make pupils conscious of the way 
questions, outlines, notes, etc., help them to learn and to think. 
She should show them how to read, how and when to ask ques- 
tions of themselves as they read. She should show them how 
she would study the lesson, or she may at times study it with 
them with the purpose in mind of helping them to help them- 
selves in the lessons that follow. Following this she should make 
them aware that she is testing their power in this direction, test- 
ing them to discover for herself how much they have gained in 
self help from her help. 

Drills and reviews, in class, upon the fundamental facts, rules 
and processes of a study raise the pupils' ideals of attainment 
and should stimulate them to drill and review by themselves. 

In the rational phases of any study, questions asked by the 
teacher in class, which call for causes or effects, reasons or 
relations and which compel pupils to think out in terms of their 
own experiences or back to what has gone before in the book, 
should be brought to the consciousness of the children in a way 
to get them into the habit of thinking in a similar manner for 
themselves as they study. 

Merely to question pupils in order to test them and to mark 
down the result, merely to help them when they fail and then 
to help them again and again engenders dependence. Such 
work does not develop in them initiative or the power of self 
help unless it is carefully planned to lielp them lielp tJieniselves, 
and unless pupils are conscious that the assistance given is given 
for that purpose. Simply to question for the reasons and rela- 
tions may not teach pupils to think for themselves ; rather it may 
develop a habit of thinking only wJien stimulated to tJiink. The 
teacher must stimulate pupils to ask themselves and then to an- 
swer such questions, and must show them how such questions 
arise out of the very nature of the study. 

3. Make careful assi^ments of lessons, and make the reci- 
tation a vigorous and thorough exercise. Growth in the power 
to study depends much upon assignments. Occasionally in all 
studies carefully prepared assignments in much detail should 
be made in order to show pupils how to plan their work for 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 3 

themselves. As a • rule, however, the assignment need not be 
elaborate or long drawn out, but it should be explicit and dis- 
criminating and adapted to the length of the study period, and 
to the ability of the pupils. It should be so explicit that no pupil 
can truthfully say, ''I did not know what Ave were to do." It 
should be discriminating so that pupils may use their time to the 
best advantage in mastering the essentials of the lesson. 
To repeat, the three tests of every assignment are : 

1. Is it explicit? 

2. Is it discriminating? 

3. Is it adapted to the student's time for preparation and his 
present ability and needs ? ■ 

That there is a distressing lack of intelligent study and recita- 
tion in a large proportion of our rural schools is the one uniform 
report that is made by competent inspectors. There is a lack 
of thought, lack of understanding or comprehension, lack of 
grasp of meaning of the lesson ''learned" and ''recited." 

It has been stated by inspectors that it is rare to hear in rural 
schools such questions and directions as the following: "What 
does this mean ? " " Why T ' " Give an example. " " Explain. ' ' 
"Did you ever see anything like this you have just read about?" 
Without the discriminating and appropriate use of such ques- 
tions, the pupils are not led to relate the facts contained in 
their lessons, or to grasp principles, and the result is not knowl- 
edge or power, but the deadening of all school interest and the 
atrophy of all native faculties of the mind. The child grows 
only through his own self activity. Neither the question nor 
the teacher's manner should imply the answer. Every pupil in 
th-e class should give careful attention to all that is said during 
the recitation. 

4. Reduce the number of daily recitations to the minimum. 

It is difficult to give suggestions that will apply in all cases. 
The teacher must study the situation and proceed in the man- 
ner that she thinks will best apply to her school. 

Geography classes may often be combined to advantage. Two 
small classes in written arithmetic may be called at the same 
time even when the work is widely separated. The teacher can 
give one section work at the board while she questions the other 
section. 

Often spelling classes may be combined. It will of course 
suggest itself to the teacher to have all pupils work together in 
such subjects as writing, drawing, nature study and singing. 

The more advanced pupils in crowded schools need not recite 
every day of the week in every study they are pursuing. Note 



4 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

the suggestions on classifications and program elsewhere given 
in this manual. 

5. See to the heating- and ventilation. About two-thirds of 
the rural schools of Wisconsin have been equipped with a system 
of ventilation. This is a great credit to the people and the 
school boards of the state and the teachers should now do their 
part by operating these plants in such a way that they will give 
the maximum amount of service. 

After the room has been warmed the foul air outlet and the 
fresh air intake should be kept open, otherwise there will be no 
ventilation. When these openings are closed, the same air is 
used over and over again, the stove simply causing a circulation 
of the air. 

The stove, the pipe and the chimney should be kept clean in 
order that the draft may be good. Sometimes the failure to 
keep the room warm is due to neglect of this kind. The ashes 
should not be allowed to accumulate as this results in the burning 
out of the grate. (Do not throw the ashes' around the trees. 
Wood ashes are valuable as a fertilizer.) 

The teacher should learn to regulate the stove. Opening a 
slide helow the fire always causes a draft and makes the fire hum. 
Opening a slide ahove the fire, either in the stove door or in the 
stove pipe, checks the fire. The fire can also be checked by a 
damper in the stove pipe. 

If coal is the fuel used, wood fire should be well started before 
coal is put into the stove, otherwise it takes a long time to warm 
the room. 

Sometimes the failure to warm the room is due to the construc- 
tion of the building itself. 

If the walls are not tight, if the windows are loose, or if there 
are openings under the doors, it will be impossible to keep the 
heat well regulated. Often such rooms have cold floors. Some- 
times there are openings in the foundation through which the 
wind blows. In all such cases the board or the electors of the 
district should take action to have the building repaired. 

When nothing better can be done the teacher must ventilate 
by means of windows and doors. In such cases the utmost care 
should be exercised in order to prevent direct drafts from 
striking the children. Windows should always be opened on the 
side opposite that from which the wind blows and should not in 
cold weather or when the children are perspiring from exer- 
cise, ever be opened on both sides at once. Probably the safest 
and most practical way to ventilate with windows is to place a 
board from four to six inches wide under the bottom of the 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 5 

window. This will prevent any direct draft and will allow the 
air to pass up between the sashes and circulate through the 
room. A tested thermometer should be provided for every 
schoolroom and put in such a place that it will record the tem- 
perature of the air where the pupils sit. The temperature should 
be kept at from 68 to 70 degrees. The temperature and ventila- 
tion of the room are matters that should never be neglected by 
the teacher. 

When the day's work is done and the pupils have departed, 
it is well to open doors and windows so that the room may be 
filled with fresh air for the next day. This ought to be done 
even if the room is supplied with a ventilating system. 

By using a sweeping compound or an oil broom the dust can 
be kept down to a great extent during the sweeping. If these 
two things are done the air in the room will be in excellent con- 
dition for use the following morning. 

The air in a schoolroom is usually too dry. This can be 
remedied somewhat by having a pan of water on the stove. 
Let the area of the surface from which evaporation can take 
place be as large as possible. 

6. Outbuildings. There are still some outbuildings that are 
not in proper condition. This is a serious matter and should 
be attended to at once. The law requiring the board to erect 
separate outbuildings for the sexes and to keep them clean and 
in repair is mandatory upon all school boards, whether the dis- 
trict maintains a rural school of the first class or second class. 
In order that this matter may be properly understood the law 
is given here in full: 

School boards to erect outbuildings. Section 435a of the Statutes. 
It shall be the duty of each school district board to provide at least 
two suitable and convenient outhouses or water-closets for each of 
the schoolhouses under its control. Said outhouses or water-closets 
shall be entirely separated each from the other and shall have separ- 
ate means of access. The boys' outhouse shall be ^provided with 
suitable urinals. Said outhouses and said water-closets if detached 
from the schoolhouse, shall be placed at least thirty feet apart and 
separated by a substantial close fence not less than seven feet in 
height, and where placed on opposite sides of the school grounds 
shall be suitably screened from view. The board of education shall 
have said outhouses and water-closets kept in a clean and whole- 
some condition. If the electors of the district or town shall at the 
annual meeting fail to vote a tax of sufficient amount to enable the 
board to comply with the provisions of this section, it shall be the 
duty of the district board or the town board of school directors, 
prior to the third Monday of the November following, to determine 
the sum necessary to be raised to carry out the provisions of this 
section, and the clerk or secretary shall forthwith certify to the 
town clerk the amount so fixed, who shall assess this amount as 



6 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

school district taxes are assessed, and such amount shall be assessed, 
levied and collected at the same time and in the same manner as 
other taxes for school purposes. 

The close board fence is not necessary when the outbuildings 
are reasonably far apart and properly screened. 

It is not enough that the outbuildings be put in good condition ; 
they must be kept in good condition. The teacher should inspect 
the buildings daily. The teacher in the school takes the place of 
the parent in the home, and this fact demands that the physical 
and moral welfare, as well as the intellectual development, should 
receive the teacher's attention. The doors of the outbuildings 
should be kept in good condition and closed every night (locked 
if necessary). A shovel should be a part of the equipment of 
every school so that a path may be made to the building in the 
winter time. This shovel should not be left outside after using 
but kept in the woodshed. 

In case the teacher is unable to keep the children from mis- 
using the outbuildings, she should, if necessary, get the assistance 
of the board. Defacing the walls of the outbuilding or any other 
property is an act of lawlessness. The following statute is given 
here in order that it may become better known: 

Obscene books, literature, papers and pictures. Section 4590 of 
the Statutes. Any person who shall, in a public place, or on any 
fence or wall, or other surface, contiguous to the public street or 
highway, or on the floor or ceiling, or on the inner or outer wall, 
closet, room, passage, hall, or any part of any hotel, inn, or tavern, 
courthouse, church, school, station house, depot for freight or pas- 
sengers, capitol or other buildings devoted or open to other or like 
public uses, or on the walls of any outbuildings, or other structure 
pertaining thereto, make or cause to be made any obscene drawing 
or picture or obscene or indecent writing, or print, liable to be seen 
by others passing, or coming near the same, such person so offend- 
ing, shall, in every such case, be guilty of a misdemeanor, and, on 
conviction thereof, shall be punished by imprisonment in the county 
jail not to exceed one year, or by fine not exceeding five hundred 
dollars. 

7. Lighting, seating, decoration. Most school buildings are 
poorly lighted. To determine whether there is sufficient window 
space or not, the teacher may calculate the number of square 
feet of floor surface by multiplying the length and breadth of 
the room together, then find the total area of window surface in 
square feet and divide the former by the latter. If the quotient 
is five or less there is enough window surface, but if the quotient 
should prove to be seven or more there is not enough window 
surface. Teachers are often careless and allow the windows to 
be covered by window-curtains in part, at least, when such cover- 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS AM 7 ?: 

ing is not needed for the purpose of shutting out the direct rays 
of the sun. Pupils should never be allowed to face the windows 
while studying. 

A mistake is often made in arranging the seats, the common 
method being to place the largest seat in the back of the room, 
then the next smaller and so on down to the smallest size. Such 
an arrangement makes it necessary for many pupils to be seated 
upon a seat that is relatively too high for the desk in front. 
Pupils are thus required to bend forward over their work to a 
degree that is a menace to health. The vital organs are com- 
pressed unduly and the shoulders stooped. A much better way 
is to arrange the largest seats in the outside rows, or rows next 
to the walls. Then the smaller seats in the next row and so on 
toward the middle of the room. As a rule the desks should be so 
placed that a line dropped from the front edge will strike from 
two to three inches inside the front edge of the seat. 

Much more attention should be given than usually is to the 
matter of decoration of the schoolroom. Space forbids the 
attempt to give specific directions as to decoration but the 
teacher should first of all clear out all of the old rubbish that 
has accumulated in the way of advertising chromos and the 
like, should clean the walls thoroughly and then put up such 
decorations as may be available for the purpose. It is far 
better, however, to have the room severely plain than to have 
the walls covered with unsightly dust-gathering material. 

Attention should also be given to the school grounds with a 
view to their improvement. Teachers who are interested will 
usually find ways and means of temporarj^, if not permanent, 
improvement. (See ''The School Beautiful.") 

8. Discipline and management. The ideal school is an earn- 
est, cheerful, hard-working communitj^, without any serious 
internal strife or discord. To bring about and maintain such 
a condition the community, the school board, the teacher and 
the pupils must all work in harmony to the end that the school 
may accomplish its proper work of developing character, train- 
ing and developing intelligence, and giving skill in using the 
knowledge that is of most value in everyday life and in further 
acquisition of knowledge. 

The teacher's fitness for her work is shown in the tact and 
ability with which she organizes the various elements to which 
reference has been made and secures the hearty cooperation of 
all. The schoolroom should at all times be quiet and orderly — 
not a death-like stillness, but the quiet that results from strict 
attention to business. 



8 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

The teacher should constantly keep in mind that for a portion 
of the day she is taking the place of the parent {in loco parentis) . 
Consequently she has a parent's authority. She is also respon- 
sible for the conduct of the pupils during the recesses and the 
noon intermission. On the way to and from school the parent 
and the teacher have ''concurrent jurisdiction" and hence the 
teacher has the right to reprimand the pupils for bad conduct on 
the road. In this matter of school discipline the teacher and the 
parent should work together. The home and the school are the 
two great institutions which mold the character of the child 
and they should work in harmony. 

The following quotation from a decision of our state supreme 
court shows the importance in which the state holds school disci- 
pline: ''A teacher is responsible for the discipline of his school, 
and for the progress, conduct and deportment of his pupils. It 
is his imperative duty to maintain good order and to require of 
his pupils the faithful performance of their duties. If he fails 
to do so he is unfit for his position. To enable him to discharge 
these duties effectually, he must necessarily have the power to 
enforce prompt obedience to his lawful commands. For this 
reason the law gives him power, in proper cases, to inflict cor- 
poral punishment upon refractory pupils." (45 Wis., p. 150.) 

The suggestions given above are all so evident and so common- 
place that the careless teacher may pass over them in a thought- 
less manner. But if the teacher will ponder over the sugges- 
tions from time to time, test her own work in its details by them, 
and seriously strive to improve her school and its environment, 
the results will tell. It is needless to say that no effort has been 
made to exhaust the subject of rural school pedagogy. On the 
other hand the effort has been made to point out but a few of 
the more obvious weak spots in rural school work. 



SCOPE OF COURSE OF STUDY 

This course is based on the requirement of the law that cer- 
tain branches shall be taught in the public schools. Section 447 
of the Revised Statutes contains this provision : ' ' Orthography, 
Orthoepy, Reading, Writing, English Grammar and Composi- 
tion, Geography, Arithmetic, Elements of Agriculture, History 
and Civil Government of the United States and of the State of 
Wisconsin, and such other branches as the board may determine 
shall be taught in every district school. ' ' 

Orthoepy should be taught in connection with reading, and 
spelling and no special class should be organized for the subject. 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS . 9 

Phonics and dictionary work should be taken up as suggested in 
the course. A textbook in Orthoepy should not be used and no 
special examination should be given in this subject. Questions 
testing the pupil's knowledge of phonics and the use of the dic- 
tionary should, however, be asked in the other subjects. 

Section 447a requires that provision shall be made by the 
proper local school authorities for instructing ''all pupils in all 
schools supported by public money or under state control, in 
physiology and hygiene with special reference to the effects of 
stimulants and narcotics upon the human system. ' ' Instruction 
in drawing and vocal music is made optional for two reasons: 
first, the law does not specially provide that these studies shall 
be taught in public schools; second, the majority of the teachers 
in elementary schools are not yet qualified to teach them. Still, 
it is urged that regular exercises in these branches should be 
conducted whenever the district board is willing, the teacher is 
competent, and the ordinary work of the school will not be im- 
paired thereby. It is recommended that oral lessons in morals 
and manners and in the elements of some of the natural sciences 
he presented in the general exercises throughout the course, 
whenever this can he done to the advantage of the pupils. 

It is suggested that teachers make outlines of the subjects 
included in this manual. Such a detailed outline has been pre- 
pared for the course in language ; it will be found at the end of 
the section devoted to the teaching of language. 

The attempt made is to adapt the instruction in the various 
branches to the needs of the pupils in attendance upon the 
district schools and to the general conditions under which these 
schools are organized and managed. There is kept constantly 
in mind the effort of the past few years in teachers' institutes, 
county training schools, and normal schools to furnish a clear 
understanding of the elementary studies, and of suitable methods 
for teaching the different subjects. 

A period of eight or nine years is usually required for a child 
in the elementary schools to gain a fair knowledge of the com- 
mon branches. The brighter pupils may accomplish this work 
in less time, while the others will be occupied for a longer period. 
A very large percentage of the children in the state receive, 
before they reach sixteen years of age, all the culture which they 
ever obtain in the schools. 

The promotion of each pupil will depend upon his ability, 
industry and regularity of attendance. At the same time, the 
skillful teacher will be able to preserve reasonable uniformity in 
the progress of all the pupils and to maintain proper classifica- 
tion. 



10 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

In response to request effort has been made to indicate the 
work by years. A "year" is a body of related work and not a 
group of pupils. In a one-room country school it is out of the 
question to have eight groups of pupils. The important thing 
to keep in mind is that each year's work he thoroiigJily done 
before tlie work of the following year is taken up.- (There is 
a possible exception to this in some of the work of the upper 
grades. ) 



THE ORGANIZATION OF A ONE-ROOM COUNTRY 
SCHOOL 

Things to Do Before the School Opens 

1. Get the register and other records for the previous year. 
From these learn just as much about the school as possible. 

In case there are names in the records that you cannot pro- 
nounce get some one to give you the correct pronunciation. It 
may save you embarrassment when school opens. 

2. Find out what textbooks are used in the school. If you are 
not already familiar with them, get copies and look them over. 

3. Look over the library. There should be a list of the books. 
Are all the books in the library that should be there? Take an 
inventory. (If there is not an accession book secure one from 
the county superintendent.) 

4. Look over the apparatus and school supplies. Is there any- 
thing lacking ? Try to get the board to furnish all needed arti- 
cles before school opens. 

5. Of course it is understood that the schoolhouse should be 
thoroughly cleaned before school opens. The outbuildings should 
be put in condition and the yard mowed. Eemind the board of 
these things in case they are negligent. 

6. After looking over the records, etc., plan thoroughly the 
work for the first day. This will lead you to plan in a general 
way what you wish to accomplish the first week and the first 
month. 

7. Learn as much about the physical features of the surround- 
ing country as possible, 

Sug-gestions for the First Day of School 

1. Be at the schoolhouse early. 

2. Have some work on the blackboard. 

8. Have a tentative program ready. On this program m^ke 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 11 

provision for reading, language, spelling, writing, and arithmetic 
at least. In large schools it may be well not to attempt to 
organize classes in all subjects the first day. H'ave an exercise 
in writing the first day. Keep samples for future comparison. 

4. Have the children sing. Let them sing some songs with 
which they are familiar. If possible also teach them a new song. 

5. Have some work in nature. Teach them some new thing. 

6. Find out all you can about the children's abilities. Re- 
member that they have been out of school for some time and 
that they need to review. In the review, however, bring in 
something new now and then. 

7. Have some stories ready for the language Avork. 

8. Be sure that the pupils go home the first evening with the 
feeling that they have learned something new^ — a song, a plant, 
a memory gem, a story — something definite that they can talk 
about at home. 

A Few Sug^gestions for the First Week and the First Month 

1. Much of the work should be review of what they had the 
year before. In this review, however, something new should be 
given in order to keep up interest. Very often it may be a new 
way of presentation, — a new viewpoint. 

2. Plan the work very carefully. Remember that your success 
depends largely upon your ability to get the pupils to do their 
own work. Don't fall into the habit of doing all the talking for 
them. 

3. Get acquainted with the parents ; secure their cooperation. 

4. Keep in touch with the members of the board. 

5. Study the pupils; learn to know their strength and their 
weaknesses. Find out the cause of their weaknesses. 

6. See to it that the work done has a bearing upon the pupil 's 
life interest. 

7. Begin to keep record of the work each class does and con- 
tinue this practice throughout the year. It will then be a simple 
matter to make out a report at the close of school. 

8. Towards the end of the first month have a Friday after- 
noon program lasting from 30 minutes to an hour. Gather 
together for this program, recitations, songs, and other school 
work. Let this program grow out of the regular work of the 
school. 

9. Do not speak slightingly of your predecessor's work. Re- 
member the Golden Rule. 



12 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



General Exercises 

1. All general exercises should be planned as carefully as the 
other work of the school. 

2. Definite material for general exercises has been suggested 
in the outlines for Physiology and Hygiene, Civil government, 
and Nature study. Topics from other subjects may also be 
introduced. Most of the singing done in the country school will 
also have to be done in the general exercise periods. 

3. General exercises need not be restricted to the ten minutes 
suggested in the program for opening exercises. Whenever there 
is a topic or a subject that should be brought to the attention of 
the whole school it is usually possible to drop some class for the 
time being and use the time for such exercise. A portion of 
Friday afternoon can often be used advantageously for such 
topics. 

School Records 

1. The register. The law provides the following : 

Section 460. "The teacher shall enter in the register furnished 
by the clerk the names, ages and studies of all scholars attending 
school, and daily their attendance and absence and such other facts 
as the county superintendent or state superintendent may require; 
which register the teacher shall deliver to the clerk at the close of 
his service or whenever it may be required for the use of the board. 
The teacher shall make in writing and transmit to the board or to 
the county superintendent a report concerning any matter relating 
to his school in such manner as the board or the superintendent may 
prescribe and any teacher who shall wilfully neglect or refuse to 
make entries in the register as above required shall forfeit his 
wages for teaching during the time of such neglect or refusal." 

The law also makes it the duty of the clerk, — 

"To furnish at the expense of the district for the use of each 
teacher a school register in the form prescribed by the state super- 
intendent, to procure the same to be returned to him at the expira- 
tion of the teacher's employment and to preserve the same with the 
records and papers of the district." (Sec. 446-7, School Code.) 

2. School attendance. By Section 439c the district clerk 
is required to furnish the teacher with a copy of the school cen- 
sus. By the same section the teacher is required to report to 
the county superintendent facts regarding school attendance. 
In this matter each county superintendent usually gives instruc- 
tions directly to the teachers. 

3. Reports to successor. The teacher must keep a record of 
the work done by the various classes during the year. This rec- 
ord, together with a copy of the program, should be left with 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 13 

the clerk at the close of school for the use of the teacher the next 
year. 

4. Other reports. Other reports may be demanded by the 
county superintendent from time to time. (See law in 1 above.) 

5. Final report blanks. At the end of the year a blank is to 
be filled out by the teacher and left with the district clerk. A 
duplicate should be mailed to the county superintendent. This 
blank gives some facts that the district clerk needs to have in 

"order to make his report to the county superintendent, and con- 
tains statistics regarding enrollment, attendance, etc. (Blank 
furnished by the county superintendent.) 

6. Free textbooks. If the district furnishes free textbooks, 
the teacher needs to keep careful record of the books and of their 
condition. The success of the free textbook system depends 
largely upon the care given the books. All books should be kept 
sanitary and worn-out copies discarded and replaced by new 
ones. 

7. The library. Records should be kept of the library books. 
An inventory should be taken two or three times during the 
year and missing copies located, if possible. See the Library 
List of 1916-18, with reference to the rebinding of library 
books (p. 8) and also the pamphlet on the rebinding of library 
books. It is also a good plan to keep a record of the reading the 
pupils do during the year. In taking the inventory include 
pamphlets and publications of various kinds. 



14 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



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16 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



EEADING 



I. GENEKAL SUGGESTIONS 

1. Importance. Reading is the most important subject taught 
in the scliool curriculum. It is the key which unlocks the store- 
house of information given us by the master minds of all times. 
The other subjects are dependent upon it and are approached 
through it. Not only is it beyond comparison the most important 
of the conventional school exercises, but it is the first subject 
taught to the pupil. Many of the later habits of study and habits 
of reciting are formed in the primary reading class. It is here that 
the habits of attention, alertness, promptness, and obedience, or 
the reverse, are formed and are carried over into other subjects. 
The pupil also gets his first impressions of the seriousness of school 
work and learns to like or dislike school activities in the reading 
class. 

No subject can be well taught unless the one teaching it is a 
friend of his pupils and a sympathetic individual, but this is par- 
ticularly true in the subject of primary reading. Children are 
often timid upon entering school and it is in the reading class that 
this timidity must be largely overcome. The two strong charac- 
teristics of the child mind are imitation and imagination. In no 
place in the school curriculum is it more true than in the primary 
reading class that "as is the teacher so is the pupil." He not only 
observes and imitates the dress and bodily movements but uncon- 
sciously is making his tastes conform to those of the teacher. Her 
likes and dislikes are soon to be his likes and dislikes. Her aspir- 
ations and ideals, whether low or high, are soon to play an im- 
portant part in his life, and her interests or lack of interests in 
things will soon be in a large measure his interests or lack of in- 
terests. It is in this class that the greatest opportunity is afforded 
to develop his imagination — his other dominant characteristics. He 
can easily imagine that he is a mouse, a dog, a bear, or any other 
animate object. He likes to act as teacher, to be requested to 
stand and read as she does; he is pleased to be or to pretend to 
be anything that the teacher would like him to be. He can pic- 
ture from the simplest story almost anything the teacher desires to 
have him. In this way the teacher may direct and largely con- 
trol the thought of the child. 



READING 17 

From what has been said it is evident that the teacher's first 
duty is to get acquainted with the pupils so that they will feel 
at ease in her presence. If this is not done, they will not enter 
into the work with any degree of pleasure and "to miss the joy 
is to miss all". 

The reading period must he made a happy one. Little can be 
accomplished if the pupils feel forced to recite. Should any large 
number of the school have this attitude, the textbook, teacher's 
manner, methods or devices used do not appeal to them and 
should be changed. 

2. Persoiiallty of teacher. The teacher should be sympathetic, 
vivacious, and alert to the thoughts of every pupil. She should 
show an active interest in all thoughts, however crude, of every 
pupil, and throw her whole strength into the class work. Noth- 
ing should interfere with her most intense interest in every sen- 
tence read or thought expressed. It is the dynamic and not the 
phlegmatic teacher that secures desirable results. 

, 3. Kinds of reading. Reading is of two kinds — silent and oral. 
While by far the greater part of the school work in reading is oral, 
jalmost all reading done after completing the school is silent. It 
follows, therefore, that the chief aim in the work of reading should 
be to teach children to be good silent readers. Silent reading 
is a thought getting process and must precede oral reading, which 
is a thought giving process. While it is true that the child cannot 
give the thought until he has gotten it, it does not follow that he 
can give it when he has gotten it. He may be able td get it in 
such a slow, labored way that he could not give it with pleasure 
to himself or to others. Again, were he able to give it readily, he 
might not know how to emphasize the main thoughts or ideas and, 
because of this, be forced to read in a monotone. The teacher's 
problem, therefore, resolves itself into the following main divisions: 

(a) How the child is to get the thought of the printed page; 

(b) How tlie child may get the thought easily and rapidly; 

(c) Hjw the child is to give the thought to others in an ef- 
fective "nd pleasing manner, or how he is to read as one would 
wish Ochers to tell it to him in those same words. 

4. Methods of teaching. There are a number of methods em- 
ployed in the teaching of primary reading. The principal ones are 
the word, the sentence, the phonic, the rhyme, and the rational 
method. Each of these methods has had and still has its advocates. 
While a discussion of the merits of each is out of order here, it may 
be said that the concensus of opinion favors the use of the best feat- 
ures of each method. The alphabet method is no longer to be 
tolerated. The word method and the sentence method both begin 
with a unit having meaning to the child, which practice is com- 
mendable, but, if used exclusively, necessitates the learning of an 
unlimited number of words or sentences without giving the child 
2— S. M, 



18 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

any power to unlock a new word or sentence for himself. The 
rhyme method requires the learning of rhymes which are usually 
introduced by appropriate stories. When the rhyme is learned 
the pupil should point to the printed words one by one as he re- 
peats the rhyme. If in reading he does not recognize a word he 
repeats the rhyme until he comes to the word which he did not 
recognize in the reading. The phonic method requires the learn- 
ing of the elementary sounds of letters and the building of words 
by the union of these sounds. The rational method varies from the 
phonic in that it employs numerous combinations of sounds in ad- 
dition to the elementary sounds. These sounds are known as 
phonograms and are diA^ded into simple, such as "f", "p", "V, 
and compound, such as "ing", "ack", and "fl". The rational 
method employs both the simple and compound phonograms and 
by so doing simplifies the mental effort of the child. Undoubtedly 
a good teacher can secure fair success with any method but would 
secure much better success by a combination of the best features 
of the sentence, word, phonic, rhyme, and rational methods. The 
primary reading work as outlined here gives such a method. 

5. Phonics, a. Phonics is recognized as the key which unlocks a 
large share of the words in the English language. It is, therefore, 
necessary that every teacher be able to give distinctly all of the 
elementary sounds as well as all of the compound sounds. She 
should teach these sounds and their combinations to the children 
so that after eight or ten weeks the children may use them as the 
chief means of learning how to pronounce new words. Not only 
is it necessary for the child to know the phonograms but he must 
know how to employ them in unlocking new words. Persistent 
drill is necessary in applying the sounds to determine the pro- 
nunciation of new v/ords and to conquer the mystery hidden on a 
page. 

b. Children often fail in the pronunciation of new words whose 
phonic elements they know. This is partly due to the fact that 
no application is made of these elements except in the reading class. 
To enlarge the scope of application, the teacher should encourage 
pupils to read new words wherever found. Give the children some 
incentive to unlock them. Study the kitchen with its salt, pepper, 
saleratus, mustard, nutmeg, etc.; the street signs such as "please", 
"^danger", "look out for the cars"; those found on the doors of 
the business blocks in the village; names on mail boxes and farm 
buildings, bill posters, hand bills, auction sale circulars, and the 
advertising pages of children's articles found in magazines, cata- 
logs, and newspapers. This work not only supplements the regular 
work of working out new words in the reading class but puts the 
child in touch with the world around him. He soon begins to 
feel master of the reading matter common to the adult and con- 
fident of some power within him to do for himself. This line of 
work is developing the initiative in the child so much desired and 



READING 19 

so little cultivated in schools. He finds that he can bring the 
"Wisconsin Farmer" and not "Hoard's Dairyman" to his father 
without asking what it looks like, and is soon able to work out 
from his child's paper sentences and short articles about his play- 
things and pets. 

■c. Teachers should write for little booklets advertising such 
articles as: Toasted Corn FJakes, W. K. Kellogg, Battle Creek, 
Mich.; Tale of the Toastie Elfins, Postum Cereal Co., Battle 'Creek, 
Mich.; The Jungle Pow-Wow, *Colgate"& Co., New York. Also col- 
lect circulars from the local implement dealers about farm ma- 
chinery, from grocery stores about garden and farm seeds, feed 
stores about the various prepared feeds, etc. 

6. Use of the pointer. In teaching sentences, phrases or groups 
of words, do not allow the pupil to point to each individual word. 
Words arranged in sentences should be seen as wholes or groups 
by the pupils. Simply .draw the pointer quickly under the whole 
sentence or group of words. Pointing to the individual words when 
in sentences will tend to make the pupils wcrd callers. The pointer 
may and should be used to point to words arranged in columns 
or placed promiscuously upon the board for drill purposes. 

7. Teaching the articles the, an, a. These three words should be 
taught in connection with other words as unaccented syllables. 
They will first appear in connection with nouns used in the sen- 
tences taught from the board and strips and should be treated as 
syllables of those words. 

8. The first writhig 

a. The first writing of the pupil should be at the board where 
he can use the whole arm movement and the words should be the 
first ones learned in the reading class. 

b. Copies should be placed upon the board by the teacher in 
large bold type. The following order may be used: 

(1) Teacher writes word and children observe. 

(2) Teacher writes word again and children trace move- 
ment in the air with whole arm and extended index finger. 

c. Pupils are sent to board and each trace over copy with 
crayon. 

d. Pupils write copy same size from memory. Teach them to 
form mental pictures of size and form of letter or word. Do not 
allow them to write small poorly shaped letters. Insist on accur- 
acy from the first. 

e. Let all writing be done at board with the full arm move- 
ment for the first two months. 

f. The first writing at the seats should be on unrulel paper 
with an extra large size lead pencil. Keep the letters large. The 
pencil should be held lightly and a free easy movement encouraged. 

g. See writing. 



20 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

9. Mechanical helps 

a. Blackboard. The blackboard used should be a wide one so 
that words and letters may l)e placed upon the upper part and left 
there for some time. The first reading is done from the black- 
board. Sentences and words are written on it to be read by the 
children. 

b. A roller map or connnon window shade. This map or shade 
should be hung over the blackboard and used to cover sentences 
and words that are to be used for drill purposes. It may be rolled 
up when not in use. 

c. Blackboard on a spring roller. A spring roller blackboard 
is one of the m6st serviceable pieces of apparatus that the teacher 
of primary reading can have. On this blackboard may be placed 
sentences, words, and phonic elements before the recitation. The 
map may now be rolled up and the writing kept from view of the 
class until the recitation period. 

d. Box of colored chalk or crayon for blackboard use. The 
colored crayon can be used to advantage in making prominent the 
important words and groups of words found in sentences. 

e. Bristol board or manila paper for sentence, word and sound 
drills. Teachers can secure sheets of bristol board or manila pa- 
per, 22x28 inches, at the printing office and have each sheet cut 
into seven strips, 4x22 inches, for sentence drills, and into sixteen 
cards, 3i^x7 inches, for word drills. For drill purposes of the 
simple and compound phonograms the sheets may be cut into forty- 
two cards 3V2 x i inches. The cutting of these cards should be 
done at the printing office where the paper is procured. Print the 
phonogram near the right end of card, if it is an initial sound and 
at left end if it is a final sound; if both, as t or P, at right end of 
one side and left end of other side. It may then be prefixed or 
suffixed to other phonograms and the proper spacing between phon- 
ograms observed. 

f. Paper cutter. A paper cutter is necessary to cut up paper 
on which liave been written letters or words already taught the 
children from blackboard or reader. "By its use the teacher can sup- 
ply letters to build woids and words to build sentences already 
known by the children. The paper cutter makes it possible to 
supply the children with words and groups of words so that the 
children's seat work keeps pace with the reading. As the material 
is often renewed, it is to be preferred to the letters and words 
which are soon soiled and unsanitary. While the 'bovgliten mate- 
rial is of value, it seldom can be made to conform to the stage of 
advancement of the pupil and, if it does, it soon becomes, by con- 
tinued use, filthy and often some essential parts lost. A paper 
cutter may be secured from school supply houses. Size 10x10 
inches may be secured for $1.25 and one 12 x 12 inches for $1.75. 

g. Pointers. Every school should own at least a half dozen 
hickory pointers. It is better if they are provided with a rubber 
tip. These pointers are very desirable for rapid game work in 



READING 21 

phonics and word drill. Hooks to hang them on should be placed 
at each end of the blackboard or in some other convenient places. 

h. Hectograph. A letter size hectograph about 10xl2l^ 
inches can be purchased of any supply company for $1.60 or one 
legal cap size, 10x15 inches, for $2.40. Bach machine has a 
bottle of ink, sponge, and full directions accompanying it. About 
100 impressions may be taken from each copy. 

i. Duplicator. The duplicator, which will permit several dif- 
ferent copies to be used upon it every day, is very desirable. The 
Dans Tip Top Duplicator, or one similar to it, contains about six- 
teen feet of roiled printing surface and this surface may be used 
from ten to twelve times over and over again. The directions tell 
how the life of the machine may be increased. It has many ad- 
vantages over the hectograph and is to be preferred to it, but every 
school should have one or the other. Price $5.00. 

j. Printing outfit. A rubber type printing outfit should be 
found in every school. It should print letters at least one inch 
in height and be enclosed in a substantial wooden box. Such an 
outfit can be purchased from any supply house for about $2.25. 

k. Alphabet cards. Alphabet cards are one of the common 
forms of seat work but the letters are usually too small to bo. 
recommended. Miss Reynolds of this department, in her pamphlet, 
"Suggestions on the Teaching of Reading" makes the following 
comment: "The seat work most often observed is that with alpha- 
bet cards. This is not at all adapted for the work of the first half 
year. When used, the teacher should buy or make cards at least 
a square inch in size. She should see that the children have the- 
letters they need to do the work assigned, and not a heterogeneous 
collection far outnumbering those needed, and that the work as- 
signed is done. One good device here is to have duplicate lists of 
words On the blackboard but not written in the same order. One 
list has a letter missing from each word; the other has no missing 
letters. 'Ohildren make the second list of words putting in the 
missing letters with their alphabet cards. Some recent primers 
have printed word cards or phonograms for the pupils' use, based on 
the vocabulary of the reader. These cards make possible seat work 
which reenforces the daily work in reading and adds greatly to the 
value of the primer." 

1. Seat work books. 

Oilman & Williams. Seat work and industrial occupations. 

(T) 
Holton & Kimball. Games, seat work, and sense training 

exercises. (T) 
Palen & Henderson. What and how. Thomas Charles Co., 

Chicago 
Pickard. Rural education. Webb. 

Sawyer. Five messages to teachers of primary reading. (T) 
Worst & Keith. Educative seat work. (T) 



Note. The abbreviation "(T)"" used in booklists included herein 
indicates that the book in question is on the Wisconsin Township 
Library List of 1916-18. 



22 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP^ STUDY 

Many of the newer sets of readers contain a teacher's manual 
giving excellent seat work material together with a m.ethod for its 
use. 

10. Supplementary readers. 

a. All schools should have at least three sets of supplementary 
readers for each of the first three grades. As many readers in each 
set will be required as there are pupils in the class. The district 
should provide these books and as they become worn out or too 
dirty to use should exchange ihem for new and more modern texts 
which contain material less familiar to the children. The book 
companies will allow about 30 per cent off the list price on a new 
book for an old copy. It is best to select readers in which the 
reading matter is no more difficult that that found in the basic 
reader. If this is done, the pupils should be able to read them 
with pleasure, accuracy, and fluency. In order that these readers 
do .not become too common, it is well for the teacher to collect 
them after the reading exercise and keep them on her desk except 
at such times as she desires the pupils to use them. 

b. In addition to the supplementary sets of readers containing 
enough copies for the whole grade, the school should be supplied 
with individual copies of all the leading primers and first readers. 
These may be used to advantage with the pupils who desire to read 
new subject matter and to feel the joy coming to them from con- 
quering alone the printed page. Some of them may be found in 
the township library list and may be purchased from the library 
fund. 

11. Tests for judging primers and readers. The beautiful mod- 
ern primer has much to do in interesting children in reading. As 
this primer is essentially different from the old style it is important 
that teachers become acquainted with the characteristics of the 
modern text. 

Paul Klapper in his new book, "Teaching Children to Read", 
gives the following tests for judging primers and readers. 

a. The content should be good literature, and varied so as to 
include nursery rhymes, personal stories of class and school life, 
fairy tales, animal and nature stories, folk tales and fables, cumula- 
tive tales of the type of "The House That Jack Built", and the 
humorous story. 

b. Early reading must be well illustrated. 

c. The theme of the reading matter must be adjusted to the 
experience of the child. The content most natural to city children 
should not be imposed on country children and vice versa. 

d. The mechanics of the primer must be such that there is, 
(1) repetition to insure mastery of form, (2) phonic difficulties 

well graded, (3) the hygienic requisites such as white paper, stand- 
ard size type, uniformity in the length of lines, etc. 

It might be added that the books should be well bound in an 
attractive form. 



READING 23 

12. Library reading. Every library should contain picture books 
for the little people so that they may begin to use them as soon 
as they enter school. It should also contain suitable books for 
them to read as soon as they have acquired the ability. The con- 
stant use of the library should be kept up from the time the child 
enters school until he leaves it. To induce him to look at the pic- 
tures in a picture book or to want to read a book, it is a good plan 
for the teacher to show some pictures or read a chapter from it 
and then put it in the library. She can now give permission to 
the pupils who have completed the seat work or their lesson from 
the regular reader to get the book from the library. Chairs or 
some form of seats, together with a small table, should be near 
the library so that the pupil or pupils using the library may be 
seated near it. This saves time, prevents confusion, and honors 
the pupils who have completed their regular work. The excessive 
use of it, however, by pupils who fail to do the regularly assigned 
work should be guarded against by the teacher. This particular 
place near the library containing table, chairs, and papers should 
be designated the library corner. See the bulletin Lessons on the 
Use of the School Library, pages 10 and 121. 

13. Pictures. The study of pictures found in the reader or col- 
lected by the teacher should receive more attention than is usually 
given. Pictures adorn the page, tell the pith of the story, hold the 
attention and arouse the enthusiasm of the pupil. Study and en- 
joy them with the pupil. Ask questions about them answered 
in the reading as well as questions that cannot be answered in it. 
Have stories told about the pictures. Encourage pupils to tell 
well not only what can be seen but have them give the probable 
inferences that may be drawn from them. 

14. Poems. A poem is a composition in which the language is 
highly imaginative. It is a work of art, it expresses different 
emotions, and it idealizes commonplace things. It is a thing of 
beauty and must appear as such to the child. Often the poem as 
taught means little or nothing to the child. It does not convey 
to him as much as does a prose selection, yet it should appeal to 
him far more, because it is so full of thought, inspiration, and 
music. A plan for teaching a poem follows: 

a. Select poems which touch some experience of the child. 

b. Secure the right atmosphere by questions that put the child 
in a mood to receive the thought of the poem. 

c. Read the poem artistically as a whole so the child gets 
the music and rhythm. 

d. Explain phrases and give the mental pictures vividly. 

e. Read poem again if short. 

f. Let pupils read it in class for the next lesson. 

Do not analyze it too minutely but be certain the pupil gets the 
jnental pictures intended. Discuss the (Jifferent mental pictures 



24 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

v/ith the members of the class. It is not necessary that all should 
have exactly the same pictures but they should all have some pic- 
tures. 

Have the children read sentences and not lines. Do not allow 
them to stop at the end of every line and read in a sing song man- 
ner, but encourage them to read a line and a half or two lines, if 
necessary, to get a complete statement before pausing. Tell them 
to let the voice fall where the sense of the piece requires it and 
no other place. The voice should often fall at the comma or where 
there are no punctuation marks. Punctuation marks are not pri- 
marily intended as guides in reading but to shdw relationship be- 
tween parts of the sentence. It is the thought or the rhetorical 
pause that a pupil must observe and not the grammatical pause. 
Read for them so that they may see how to hold words, group 
words and give proper tones. If pupils can group words properly 
and prolong them when necessary they have acquired two very im- 
portant steps in learning to read a poem or poetry. See Language, 
p. 70. 

15. Mechanics of the recitation. The manner in which pupils 
pass to the class and the position assumed by them during the 
recitation influences in a large measure the quality of the work 
done. Little people should move quickly to the class and stand 
in line back to the school during the recitation. This not only 
gives the teacher a chance to face the class and the school at the 
same time, but prevents any annoyance that may come to the class 
by the movements of the other pupils. If readers are used, have 
the pupils place them quietly on the floor directly in front of them. 
With hands behind them and position erect Imitating that of the 
teacher, they are now ready for the drill work on the blackboard 
or word cards. The interest manifested by the teacher as shown 
by looks, movements, and questions will have much to do with 
these qualities of the pupils. The primary reading class above all 
others demands every moment of the teacher's time and every 
ounce of her interest, enthusiasm, and vigor. Seldom should any- 
thing occur in the school that should need the attention of the teacher 
while the class is reciting, certainly not such as answering ques- 
tions for the pupils at their seats or permitting children to ask 
questions of the teacher. At the signal "books", all quietly take 
and open books. 

The teacher should be and give evidence of being so interested 
in the selection that the pupils will catch her enthusiasm. The 
warmth and animation exhibited by the teacher for her work will 
draw children to a similar appreciation. Pupils will then not be 
so inclined to look out of the window, annoy other children, or be 
caught in a vacant, meditative stare. Every child should be doing 
silently what the one reciting is doing audibly. 



READING 25 



II. COURSE OF STUDY 

First Year 

1. Primers and readers. The first year's work in reading should 
be done from several books and the class should read during the 
year at least two primers and the first half of two first readers. 
Have the first half of two primers read, then the last half of 
them, and then the first half of the first readers. 

The ambition of each child on entering school is to read in his 
new book. Just as early as is possible, this privilege should be 
granted, but preparation is necessary that this first reading from 
the text be a real pleasure. The story, the rhyme, and the action 
sentence are recognized approaches to the work of reading, but 
whether these or other methods are used, the vocabulary of the 
first ten or twelve pages of the primer to be used must be the basis 
for the sentences taught so that the child will be able to read in 
his book with the least possible preliminary effort. 

2. First week. Each day of the first week of school, two or three 
sentences or rhymes should be taught as wholes. The words com- 
posing these should be contrasted in form so that one sentence 
mass can be distinguished from others, as sentences are wholes to 
children. These sentences must be reviewed daily. This can be 
successfully done by writing them upon the upper half of card- 
board strips about 4x22 inches. These strips may be passed out 
to children and exchanged after reading; games may be played 
with them; and they may be used as a seat work exercise by lay- 
ing corn upon the words. Then these strips may be fastened to- 
gether with paper clips by lapping the blank half under a written 
half, thus making a substantial and valuable reading chart which 
may be at all times before the class. A teacher should not pre- 
pare sentence strips or word cards until he knows the primer in 
use in the school to be taught. It is wise, however, to prepare 
these strips and cards before the opening of the school, if this is 
known. 

3. Second week. The second week's work should accomplish the 
learning in script of every word in these sentences which appears 
in the primer. This may be done by separating the word to be 
taught from the sentence mass. (Children do not sense where 
words begin and end. This needs special attention.) It is usually 
best to break the sentences into words in the same order in which 
they were first presented. Word drills must be snappy and varied. 
Words may now be combined into many new sentences for reading 
exercises. 

4. Third week. The work of the third week should be to teach 
the pupils to read the sentences and words in print that they have 



26 MANtr'AL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STtJDY 

learned in script. A printing press makes it possible for the 
teacher to print the sentences beneath the written ones on the 
strips previously made, putting printed words directly below the 
script form. Word cards may he treated the same way. Each 
day of this week the sentences taught the first week may be pre- 
sented on the board in script, then in print, then on the strips. 
These strips as used may be again fastened together to make a 
printed chart by lapping the written half. Word cards may be 
folded or cut so that only the printed word will appear, after the 
words are recognized in print. 

5. Fourth week. By the fourth week pupils should have had on 
the board and on printed slips practically all of the sentences found 
on the first ten or twelve pages of the primer. Now give the pupils 
their books. Let them experience the joy that the power to read 
gives them. This spontaneous reading, made possible by a mini- 

-mum amount of preparatory work, gives the pupils from the first 
proper standards of reading and they will not attempt to read in 
a less finished manner. 

Continue the drill on the board and on the slips as is suggested 
in II, 8 during the school year. Prepare the child well to read 
his daily lessons in the book by word and sentence drill as has 
been outlined. 

6. Phonics. Begin the teaching of phonics here. The con- 
sonant sounds should be taught first and the initial consonant 
sounds of the words that have been taught should receive first con- 
sideration. See Teaching of Phonics, II, 9. 

As soon as new words appear in the lessons, a careful develop- 
ment of each advance lesson is necessary. Interest the children 
in the pictures in the text. Get from the pupils the words and 
sentences that are new by asking questions about the pictures. 
Drill upon these expressions. This method may be followed until 
pupils have mastered a sufficient number of phonic elements to 
enable them to unlock the new words in each lesson. 

7. Expression. Children should from the first week read in just 
as finished a manner as adults would read. This may be accom- 
plished by having a study lesson in which the proper oral expres- 
sion of each sentence is emphasized and pupils are filled with the 
idea that oral reading is an art. For the finished reading lesson 
the aim is to give the thought of the page to others in an en- 
tertaining manner. The last half of the period devoted to a fin- 
ished reading will of necessity be spent in a preparatory word de- 
velopment for the new lesson to enable the child to get the thought 
from the book. "Tell the story to us," is a good child's aim for 
this part of the reading work. 

8. Steps in a primary reading recitation 

a. Sentences from primer written on blackboard and covered 
with the roller map until class recites. 



READING 27 

b. Reading of sentences on blackboard. 
e. Reading of same sentences on strips. 

d. Drill on words from sentences on board. 

e. Drill on the same words on cards. 

f. Drill on the initial consonants of these words on blackboard 
and on cards. 

9. Teaching of phonics 

a. If the reader presents a system of phonics, study it until 
you are thoroughly familiar with it and then follow it. Common- 
place work is often caused by teachers not understanding a method 
well. A book built upon a system of phonics can be best taught 
by following that system. It is therefore easier for the teacher 
as well as more fruitful for the pupils to have the teacher familiar- 
ize herself with the method and not try to adapt the book to her 
method. If the book presents no method the followin,g is sug- 
gested as a guide. 

Teach those consonants first that are the initial sounds of the 
words taught. Suppose one of the first sentences taught is: "Fan- 
nie has a yellow flower." All these words are found in the primer 
and should be the first words taught. "P" being an initial sound 
should be first taught. The following is one way this may be 
done: Readers will give other devices. 

b. Tell a short story about yourself. The story should be a 
probable one and should contain recent occurrences. A personal 
story that shall represent nearness in time and place is the best 
one for little people. Let the climax of the story be the giving 
of the sound made by your pet cat when angry. After giving it 
vigorously, write the character "f" upon the blackboard. Give it 
again and then have the whole class give it. Have them hit it 
hard or igive it forcibly. Do not let them slide up on the sound 
but give it with such vigor that the whole body responds. Some 
animals, and often inanimate objects, make the sounds represented 
by the consonants. Teach the other consonant sounds in the same- 
way. When one has been taught, place it on the upper part of 
the blackboard enclosed in a box. [f] It should remain there 
in sight of the pupils and as others are taught they should be 
placed in similar boxes near it. 

c. After the consonant sounds used in the words taught have 
been mastered, introduce those phonograms which are combina- 
tions of a vowel and a consonant sound. This may be done by 
preceding the consonant sound by the short vowel sound as: an, 
at; en, et; in, it; on, ot; un, ut; or by blending the consonant 
sound with the vowel as: ha, la, pa, sa, fa, ma, ra, ta, ba. In the 
former case, words may now be built by prefixing certain conso- 
nants as: 

f-an c-at 

c-an s-a*t 

m-an r-at 

r-an f-at 



28 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

In the latter case by suffixing consonants as: 

ha-t la-p 

ha-m la-d 

ha-d la-g 

ha-s la-w 

While word lists may be built in two different ways the teacher 
should confine her teaching to one system only. 

Many words may now be built by the pupils for seat work. Tell 
them the number they are to write in each word family. They 
should not be asked to write words not in their visual or oral 
vocabulary. 

d. Add "e" to certain word lists. This makes the preceding 
vowel long. Now have other word lists made ending in final c. 

Teach such word phonograms as at, an, ate, an-i, etc., also the 
difllcult consonants and blends as they are met with in the book 
used. After they are taught, write the consonants and blends at 
the top of the blackboard alphabetically arranged, so that pupils 
may refer to them in writing word families. 

10. How to handle word and phonogram cards. Have large 
words turned toward the pupils and the word written small in the 
upper left hand corner of the reverse side. Do not use more than 
ten or twelve cards at once and shift quickly. Raise the card 
nearest you for an instant, then lower. If pupils pronounce cor- 
rectly, place card in front of the others; if unable to give sound 
quickly, lower card from view of class and show again. Work for 
rapidity. 

11. Ear training exercises in phonics. 

a. Place a collection of objects or pictures of objects in view 
of class Then pronouncing very slowly and distinctly by the name 
of each, ask: "Who will bring me a b-oo-k?" Wait between 
words for the pupil to recognize the word and to bring the object 
or picture. 

b. Ask pupils to perform certain actions, as: R-a-p on the 
d-oo-r. 'C-l-a-p your h-a-n-d-s. 

c. With letter cards, form in view of the pupils a word like 
r-a-p. Pronounce each word slowly, prolonging the sound; then 
ask: "How many sounds has the word? What is the first? What 
is the second?" The pupil may now take the word apart, sound 
by sound, as teacher pronounces it. He may also put the cards 
together to build a word again. This helps children to see that 
a word is composed of a collection of individual sounds and that 
each sound is represented by a letter. 

d. Recite a Mother Goose rhyme to the children and ask them 
to tell you all the words in the rhyme that begin with a certain 
sound or that belong to a certain family. Nonsense rhymes like 
the following may also be used: 



READING 29 



"Johnny, there's Tommy at the gate, 
Tommy, you see, was Johnny's schoolmate, 
Run to school quickly, or you will be late, 
And don't forget to take your slate. 
On Saturday they went with Aunt Kate 
To the pond to learn to skate. 
Mother put their dinner on a plate 
And put it down in front of the grate." 

e. Whisper a word and see how many can tell what the word is. 

f. How to teach blend. Write the letters very far apart and connect 
them with a line thus: s a t Have distance between 

11 1 



"a" and "t" greater than distance from "s" to "a" to show that 
the vowel should be more prolonged than the consonant. Call the 
line the railroad track. The sounds of the letters are the cars. 
Car "s" runs along the track until it meets with car "a", then "a" 
pulls it on to "t". The game may be played in the following man- 
ner: 

Let the pupil sound the first letter as teacher points to it. The 
teacher draws the pointer slowly along the line until it reaches 
second letter, gathers up second letter without stopping, and runs 
on to the third letter. The pupil must prolong the sounds as the 
pointer is being drawn along the line. The train runs off the track 
if one sound stops before it reaches the next. The train travels very 
slowly at first, then faster and faster. 

g. If pupil has difficulty sounding out a certain word, write 
the letters hit and miss on the blackboard and point to the indi- 
vidual letters composing the word. When the child is perfectly 
familiar with individual sounds, then return to the word. 

12. General devices for drill in phonics. 

a. Teacher writes letter on blackboard and pronounces sound 
vigorously. Have the pupils do the same in concert. Repeat and 
have pupils repeat until the sound is given distinctly and audibly. 

b. Have individual pupils pronounce it. Skip around the class, 
having different pupils give the sound to see who can give it best. 

c. After several sounds are taught, write the letters promiscu- 
ously on the blackboard. Teacher now points to a letter and a 
pupil gives the sound. Do this as rapidly as the pupil can go. 
Vary it by having two pupils follow the teacher to see who can givo 
them farster. 

d. Draw a staircase, writing a letter on each step. Have a 
pupil climb the stairs. If he fails on a sound, show by colored 
crayon where he stopped. Tell him to sit there till he can go on. 
Have other pupils attempt going up the stairs. Possibly others 
will have to sit beside the first one.. 

e. With a number of letters on blackboard, teacher gives a 
sound and pupil finds it. Vary by having one pupil give a sound 
and others find the letter. 



30 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

f. Rapidly sketch a tree and fill it with letters. See who can 
pick them all from it. Vary by filling a box. 

g. Bring the different utensils used in the kitchen and place 
them on the table. If you can't get the real articles, pictures will 
answer the purpose. Tell the children that the word you are go- 
ing to write on the board is the name of some article on the table 
and they can easily tell what article it is by sounding out the 
word. The first one who succeeds in sounding out the word may 
pass to the table, pick up the article and show it to the rest of 
the class. Following is a list of the articles that may be used for 
this purpose: Strainer, chopping bowl, egg beater, spoon, tumbler. 

h. Bring attractive advertising cards into the schoolroom and 
let the children read the advertisements. 

i. Bring the different magazines and newspapers into the 
schoolroom and have the children name them. 

j. Let pupils fold a piece of paper from directions written on 
the board. 

k. Ask the children to bring you a certain number of dilRcult 
words that they have found in newspapers, magazines, and other 
books than their readers, and pronounce them for you. These 
should be difficult words that they have worked out independently. 

1. Write nonsense rhymes on board and let the children study 
them out and then read to the class. 

Example: "The cat is in the pantry, 
The dog is in the lake, 
The cow is in the hammock, 
What difference does that make; 

ra. Place a list of action sentences on the board and have each 
child study the sentence through and then perform the action. 

Examples: "Clap your hands, John." 

"Hide under the desk, Charles." 
"Whisper to Olive, May." 

13. Suggestions for teaching sight words 

a. Introduce the new vvord by writing it upon the blackboard 
and tell a simple little story about it. Suppose the words to be 
"no" and "yes". 

"Once there was a little baby who was just learning to talk. She 
broke her doll. Her mamma said to her: 'Baby is a bad girl*. 
Baby shook her head and said: 'No, no, no'. Then her mamma 
said, 'Is dolly bad?' and baby said, 'Yes, yes, yes.' " 

b. Action words may be taught by allowing children to per- 
form the act suggested. 

c. Some words such as fly, spider, table, chair, book, etc., may 
be taught by simple drawings or pictures. 

d. Blue, green, etc. may be written with colored crayon. 

e. "Little" may be written in small, and "big" in large letters. 

f. "Please" is the polite word. 

g. "Play" tells us what we like to do at recess. 



READING 31" 

h. "Eat" tells us what we like to do when hungry. 

i. "What" is the word with its lips always open to ask a ques- 
tion. 

j. "Look" has two big, big eyes in the middle looking straight 
at you to remind you what it is doing. 

14. Games and devices for drill in reading 

a. Write sentence on board. Pupils read silently and at sig- 
nal of teacher give thought. 

b. As soon as pupil can read the sentence, have him turn his 
back to board. 

c. As soon as pupil indicates he can read a sentence, havcy 
him whisper it to the teacher. 

d. Give two or more meanings to a sentence by the placing 
of the emphasis. Illustration: 

"The little (not large) red hen found a seed. 
"The little red (not white) hen found a seed. 
"The little red hen found a seed (not an apple)." 

e. Have the pupil who first reads the sentence perform what 
the sentence tells him to do. 

f. Have articulation exercises on "ick", "ang", "ight", etc. 
families. Let pupils vote for the winner. 

g. Time the children on pronouncing accurately a list of words, 
h. Drill on phrases in the same way as with words. 

i. Have a race between two pupils on a column of words to 
see who can name words faster. Select pupils of about equal at- 
tainments and make work snappy. 

j. Write words or groups of words promiscuously on black- 
board and cover with roller map. Raise map and have tvfo pupil3 
race to find Avords as teacher names them. The teacher must pro- 
nounce rapidly enough to keep a little ahead of pupils. Vary the 
method by having one of the pupils pronounce. 

k. In place of words as in j use letters. The teacher gives 
the sounds and pupils find them. 

1. Give the meaning of a certain word written on the board and 
let the pupil find the word and pronounce it. Example: 

(1) Find the word that tells us where Hiawatha lived — • 
wigwam. 

(2) Find the word that tells us with whom Hiawatha lived — - 
Nokomis. 

m. Make a picture corresponding to a word if it can be illus- 
trated and have a child erase the word that corresponds to the pic- 
ture. 

n. Spider and fly. Let the children (representing flies) form a 
circle, and one child (representing a spider) stand in the center. 
Let each fly hold a card and let the spider catch the flies he can 
name correctly. 

o. Wide awake. Write word and erase instantly. The pupils 
who get the word may do any one of the following things: sit on 



32 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE 01' STUDY 

the floor, turn backs, raise one finger, fold arms, hands on top of 
head, hands on hips, hands on shoulders, run to door, etc. 

p. Write new words on leaf forms cut from paper. Throw 
the leaves into the air and let the children catch them as they fall 
or pick them up after they have fallen. The child who gathers the 
most leaves and names them correctly may throw them into the air 
the next time. Game may be varied by writing the words on snow- 
flakes, nuts, apples, etc. 

q. Balloon game. Draw pictures of colored toy balloons on the 
blackboard. Place a word iji each balloon. Let children buy the 
balloons by naming the words. 

r. Boxing the words. Write several words upon the black- 
board. Let one child name one of the words and another child 
may draw a box around the word. 

s. Clock game. Draw a large circle on the board and place 
words around the circumference. Pointer may represent hands of 
the clock. See how many can go clear around the clock without 
making a mistake. 

t. One child acts as teacher and calls on some member of the 
class to name two or three words in the list. If child called upon 
to name the words pronounces all words correctly, he may take his 
turn pointing. 

u. Children form a circle. Teacher shows word card to the 
children. If child gives the wrong answer or does not name the 
word instantly, he must go to center of circle. If child in center 
can answer before the one whose turn it is he may take the second 
child's place and second child goes to the center. 

V. Place list of new words on the board. Give a child a pointer. 
Let another child come up and turn his back to the blackboard. 
Child who has the pointer points to a certain word in the list. Child 
who has his back turned to the blackboard guesses what the word 
is by asking: "Is it water?" Class answers: "No." Continue until 
the word is guessed. 

w. Divide the blackboard into spaces. In each space place a 
word. Call each space a mile. Select two children to run a race. 
Start one at one end and one at the other. The one running the 
greatest number of miles correctly wins. 

X. Squirrels gathering nuts. Write the new words upon cards 
and stand in the chalk tray. Teacher calls for a certain word. 
Child who sees the word first runs and gets the word (nut) and 
brings it home with him. The squirrel gathering most nuts is con- 
sidered the best worker. 

y. Choose sides or arrange boys on one side and girls on the 
other. See which side names first the most word cards as teacher 
holds cards in view. 

z. Teacher writes a list of the new words on the board. On a 
slip of paper she writes one of the words written on the board and 
the children are to guess the word the teacher has written on the 



READING 33 

slip by asking a question like the following: "Is it play?" The 
child who guesses correctly may go up to the teacher and whisper 
the word he wishes her to write on the next slip. 

aa. New words are written on the board. Teacher says: "I 
am thinking of a word that begins with the letter 's.' Who can 
point to the word and name it?" Child who names word correctly 
may play the part of the teacher the next time. 

bb. Drop the handkerchief. New words written on the board. 
Children form a circle. Child who misses a word goes to the center 
and must stay there until he can name a word that some one else 
has missed. 

cc. Jack and Jill. Draw a picture of a hill with words stretch- 
ing up to it in two rows. Let a little boy and a little girl take a 
hold of hands. Class recites first part of Jack and Jill. Now the 
children who represent Jack and Jill begin to climb the hill in the 
following manner: Girl names bottom word in one row; boy names 
bottom word in another row. If either one misses a word, class 
recites the last half of the jingle, saying either Jack or Jill as the 
case may be. 

dd. Boy Blue. Boy Blue (child) may drive in the sheep by 
saying words on the pictured sheep scattered about the meadow 
(blackboard). Drawings of sheep may be very simple. 

15. Library lessons. Teach the lesson on "How to Handle 
Books," page 22, Lessons in the Use of the School Library. If 
there' is a public library in the district, introduce the children to it, 
as suggested on page 13 of said publication. 

16. Library reading. The following list of library books is a 
good one for pupils of the first grade. All are on the Township 
Library List of 1916-18. 

a. Readers 

Blaisdell & Blaisdell. Boy Blue and his friends 
Cox. The Palmer Cox brownie primer 
Grover. The sunbonnet babies' primer 
3Iother Goose. Jolly Mother Goose annual 
Norton. The heart of oak books, book 1 
O'Shea. Six nursery classics 

b. Picture books 

Cock Robin and Jenny Wren 
Mother Goose's ABC 
Nursery land 
Pretty pets 

For suggestions as to the library reading by children of this grade, 
see "Books for Youngest Children," and "Picture Books," page 121, 
Lessons on the Use of the School Library. 

3— S. M. 



34 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



Second Year 

1. Scope. The second year pupils should review the more dif- 
ficult selections and complefe the first readers. In addition to this, 
many fables and folk stories and four or five second readers should 
be read. Individual copies may be gotten from the library and from 
homes in the district. If the pupils are properly taught, they will 
complete a large number of readers. Some second year classes read 
twenty books in a year. During the library periods give the pupils 
easy reading material for silent reading. See Rural Education, by 
Pickard, p. 102. 

2. Devices. The devices for phonic, word, and sentence drill 
given for the first grade should be continued in the second. Many 
of the games there suggested will be played with increasing delight. 

3. Expression. Work for expression and for thought of the 
reading matter. The pupils must read with good expression or 
they will not like to read, and if they do not like to read the teacher 
is failing to teach the subject properly. Do not allow them to read 
too difficult matter. Better have it too easy than to difficult. Have 
them read a number of easy books in place of a few difficult ones. 
They should not read in monotone or in a semi-conscious condition 
as is often the case. Neither should they grow up word callers. 
If normal children do not read with good expression, enjoy reading 
to the teacher and at home, the teacher is likely failing in some 
of the following ways: 

a. In allowing the pupils to read too difficult matter. 

b. In omitting proper word and phonic drill. 

c. In neglecting proper eye training. 

d. In allowing the child to read before the teacher has shown 
her interest in the selection by questions and actions. 

4. Oral reading. Oral reading is the last one of many parts to 
a reading recitation on any selection. The child must be prepared 
by proper drill on the mechanical parts and by arousing his inter- 
est in the selection. There is too much formal reading- — just read- 
ing. No one believes that children should be allowed to read in a 
careless, indifferent, humdrum way, yet this kind of reading is all 
too common. Every oral recitation should be conducted as though 
the teacher and pupils were trying to accomplish some definite 
thing. If the question, "Why did you read?", were asked a pupil by 
a visitor, the pupil should reply as follows or give some equally good 
answers. 

a. To see if I could give the proper grouping of words; 

b. To find out the answer to certain questions raised by the 
members of the class; 

c. To see if I could place the emphasis on certain words which 
would give the proper meaning; 

d. To cultivate proper tones; 



READING 35 

e. To train myself to enunciate and articulate distinctly; 

f. To enjoy the selection; 

g. For the pleasure of the teacher and members of the class. 
He should not be reading because it is his turn, to keep him from 

mischief or simply to fill in time. The teacher and pupil alike 
should know and be able to tell why he is reading. 

5. Older in studying a selection. After the lesson is assigned 
the following order is a good one to follow in teaching it. 

a. A short, rapid test of the word and phonic elements taught 
in the assignment. 

b. Drill in eye training and in the placing of emphasis. 

c. Story of the lesson. 

d. Question for thought and for the mental pictures of the 
children on the selection. 

e. Reading for expression. 

f. Occasionally dramatizing a story read. 

6. Haste versus good reading. As a rule do not attempt to pass 
through all these steps in studying a selection in one recitation pe- 
riod. The first two, three, or four may be enough for one recitation, 
and the remaining steps may then be taught at the next recitation 
period. Often one whole recitation should! be devoted to a single 
step. Do not think the pupils must read orally at every recitation 
period. Reading is not: 

a. Drawling out words, 

b. Going through certain mechanical movements every day. 

c. Passing over pages without getting the thought. 

d. Finishing so many pages or books. 

Reading is: (a) Getting the thought from the printed page or 
giving thought obtained from the printed page to others. (b) 
Good reading consists in giving his thought to others in a pleasing 
and convincing manner. The following suggestions may help 
teachers to do this: 

7. Suggestions in teaching^ the steps in a selection 

a. The word and phonic test at the beginning of a recitation 
presupposes teaching and drill work on these words as to pronuncia- 
tion and meaning in the assignment at the previous recitation. 
Follow directions for drill given in the first grade. Do not allow 
pupils to read unless they know the pronunciation and meaning ol 
words. The meaning is best determined from the context or by 
using a word in a sentence. 

b. Eye training is necessary to secure smoothness and ease in 
reading. Hesitating and choppy reading is ^^'tp^ ^b° -'^'^nU of nupils 
seeing only one word at a time. To overcome this it is well to give 
a short exercise daily requiring pupils to take in at a glance a 
phrase or a whole sentence. This may be quickly done by writing 
sentences taken from the lesson or composed of words from the 



36 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

lesson on the board and covering them with a roller map until class 
time. By exposing the lower sentence for an instant only, and not 
the others, the pupils soon become expert in taking in whole sen- 
tences. When this can be done the attention may then be given to 
phrasing, emphasis, etc. 

Children after mastering the early difficulties of reading should 
be trained to read silently with rapidity. 

Some people have the power to comprehend in a general way the 
contents of a page by passing the eye slowly from the top to the 
bottom of it and not from the left to the right. 

c. As a rule several pupils should be called upon to tell a part 
of the story of the lesson. It should not consist in simply giving 
in one sentence the title of the selection, but on the contrary should 
contain every circumstance given by the author. The pupils should 
face the class and tell it in an entertaining manner, the object be- 
ing to tell it as entertainingly as the teacher could. 

d. After the pupils have told the story as well as they can cer- 
tain poii^s will usually ha.ve been overlooked. It is the teacher's 
time now to question closely for the thought to find out who has 
carefully read the selection. Ask questions that not even a close 
reading of the lesson will answer as well as questions that a close 
reading of the lesson will answer. 

e. The pupils are now prepared to read. Do not let them do 
so, however, without a purpose. Every oral reading recitation 
should have some definite aim and the teacher as well as the pupils 
should know what this aim is. 

8. Assignment 

a. Teach pronunciation and thought of new VvOrds and idioms. 

b. Give word and phonic drill. 

c. Question to arouse interest. 

d. State the definite length of lesson. 

e. Give special directions for seat work. 

The assignment of the lesson is as important as the recitation 
proper. Little people cannot study unless they know what and 
how to study. The new words must be mastered as to pronunciation 
and thought or a proper studying of the lesson is impossible. Ap- 
proach the pronunciation through the use of phonics whenever pos- 
sible. Suppose tlie new word to be "playmate." As the teacher 
writes "pi" on 'the board the pupils give the sound, then as "a" is 
written the pupils give its sound and so on until the word is finished. 
After the last sound the pupils pronounce the whole word, playmate. 

When the thought of the more difficult words is mastered and the 
pronunciation fixed by drill exercises as given in the first grade, 
the teacher should arouse the interest of the class by questions that 
will require a careful reading of the lesson to answer. 

9. Picture Study. Do not fail to study the pictures. Pictures 
not only make books attractive but arouse interest in the selection 



READING 37 

and help in its interpretation. Have the pupils tell in story form 
all that can be seen in the picture and the probable inferences that 
may be drawn from it. Have one pupil tell the story of the picture 
and another the story as gotten from the reading. See p. 7. Also 
Language, p. 67 and 68. 

10. Emphasis. Unless pupils can place the emphasis when and 
where needed little progress can be made. Emphasis is used to 
make an idea stand out prominently and in conversation is secured 
in many ways. The following may be used to advantage in read- 
ing; 

a. Speaking the word louder — the common and poorest way 

b. Speaking- lower or whispering the word 

c. Pausing before or after words 

d. Reading faster or slower 

e. Holding or prolonging the word 

f. Inflection 

g. Tone of voice 

h. Facial expression 
i. Bodily movements 

Use type sentences for drill in placing emphasis. The teacher 
should read the sentences, show how the emphasis is placed and 
how the placing of emphasis on different words changes the mean- 
ing. Continue this line of work in the daily reading until the chil- 
dren are able to put several meanings into the same sentence. 

We employ all of these ways many times a day in ordinary con- 
versation to emphasize our thoughts, yet very seldom do teachers 
call attention to any particular way of doing this in the reading 
class except speaking the word louder. Exercises in placing the 
emphasis and the particular way of doing it should be early taught 
and continue throughout the course. 

First graders delight in reading a sentence so as to make it mean 
two or three different things, and the eighth grader cannot become 
an accomplished oral reader without being able and knowing how 
to place special stress on words and groups of words. 

11. Library lessons. Review the lesson on "How to Handle 
Books," page 22, Lessons on the Use of the School Library. If 
there is a public library in the district, induce the children to take 
out borrowers' cards and to begin drawing books for home reading. 
Teach public library regulations, such as renewals, fines, etc. Con- 
sult with the public librarian in this connection. 

12. Library reading for the second grade. All the titles are on 
the Township Library List of 1916-18. 

Baldwin. Fairy stories and fables; second reader grade 

Bannerman. Story of Little Black Sambo 

Bigham. Merry animals tales 

Burgess. Goop directory 

Chance. Little folks of many lands 

Chutter. The art-literature readers, book 2 

Foulke. Twilight stories 



38 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



Harris. Eugene Field reader 

Liang. The sleeping Beauty in the wood and other stories 

Lansing. Rhymes and stories 

Mother Goose. Only true Mother Goose melodies. 

Norton. Heart of oak books, book 2 

Potter. Tale of Peter Rabbit 

Potter. Tale of Sauirrel Nutkin 

Sciidder. Verse and prose for beginers in reading 

For some suggestions in regard to the library reading iji this 
grade, read "Books for Youngest Children," page 121, Lessons on 
the Use of the School Library; also "Fairy Stories, Fables, Folklore, 
and Legends — General Reading", page 98 in the same publication. 



Third, and Fourth Years 

1. Readers. These grades should read at least five or six third 
readers. Keep the reading matter easy and work for expression. 

2. Drill exercises. The drill exercises in phonics, words and 
sentences should be continued as vigorously in these grades as in 
the preceding ones. Make constant application of the knowledge 
of the simple and compound phonograms in unlocking new words. 
Do not pronounce words for pupils when they can, with a little help 
from the teacher, get the pronunciation themselves. Read to the 
children. Read a sentence and then a paragraph. Ask the pupils 
to listen to tones, notice the word grouping, how to emphasize, etc., 
and then have the pupils read. 

3. Drawing. In addition to the steps given in teaching a selec- 
tion as outlined for the second grade, have the pupils as a part of 
the preparation draw on paper during their study period the mental 
pictures produced by reading the selection. They should not be 
asked to draw the pictures in the book, but those suggested by the 
reading.. At first they will be crude but with a little help from the 
teacher on how to represent what they desire, it is surprising how 
rapid the improvement will be. The child who gets the most com- 
plete mental picture from the reading will, as a rule, produce the 
best drawing. This drawing should be displayed upon the bulletin 
board each day and, when exceptionally good ones are made, left 
there for a number of days. The drawing necessitates a careful 
reading, trains pupils to form mental pictures and cultivates power 
to express what is seen. See drawing. 

4. Dictionary. Dictionary work should be begun in these grades. 
The pupils should use an elementary or abridged edition and the 
teacher should take time to familiarize the pupils with its use. This 
is the place to begin to teach diacritical marks. They should be 
introduced as a help to getting pronunciation from the dictionary. 

In lessons on the Use of the School Library, published by this 
department, twenty pages are devoted to the use of the dictionary. 



READING 39 

It contains a graded course in the use of the dictionary and devices 
for teaching such use more complete than can be attempted here. 
See indicated dictionary work for grades three and four on pages 
20 and 21 of said publication. 

5. Spelling. Intensive work in spelling should be done in these 
grades. For material to be used, the methods for assignment, seat 
study, and the recitation, see Spelling, p. 31 and 3 2. 

6. Pupils should pass judgment on content. While every selec- 
tion necessitates the asking of questions peculiar to it the follow- 
ing will serve to guide the teacher on what may be asked: 

a. What is the most important truth in to-day's lesson? 

b. Are there any choice descriptive passages that should be 
committed to memory? 

c. Is the information worth remembering? Why? 

d. Why did the author write this selection? 

(1) To entertain? 

(2) To give information? 

(3) For financial gain? 

(4) To set forth higher ideals of life? 

7. Varied Subject Matter. The modern school reader will give 
reading matter well adapted to pupils in these grades. Should your 
school have the old type reader, it will be necessary to supplement 
it with certain types of stories such as Folk Tales, Fairy Tales, Fa- 
bles, and Myths. In addition to this, memory gems and long se- 
lections of choice poetry should be taught. The leaclier, however, 
cannot do this well without knowing the gems or poems herself. 
Nowhere is it truer that you cannot teach what you do not know 
than here. The reproduction and dramatization of stories in the 
first and second grades should be continued in these grades. The 
value of a story or poem can often be measured by the interest of 
the children and their desire to make it their own. 

8. Library lessons. See under "4, Dictionary" above. The spe- 
cific lesson assigned to the fourth grade reading class is that on 
"Definitions" page 32, Lessons on the use of the School Library. 

9. Library reading for third and fourth grades. These books 
are all on the Township Library List of 1916-18. 

Aesop. Child's version of Aesop's fables 

Andersen. Stories. 

Andrews. Stories Mother Nature told her children 

Andrews. Seven little sisters 

Barrle. The story of Peter Pan for little folk (O'Connor) 

Bass. Stories of pioneer life 

Bigham. Merry animal tales 

Burgess. Old Mother West Wind 

Carroll. Alice's adventures in Wonderland 

Chase. Children of the wigwam 

Collodi. Pinocchio 



40 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

Dopp. Tree dwellers 

Eggleston. Stories of great Americans for little Americans 

Grimm. German household tales 

Jatakas. Jataka tales 

Lang. Cindrella; or, the little glass slipper and other stories 

Lang. Jack the giant killer and other stories 

Maclntyre. Cave boy of the age of stone 

Peary. Snow baby 

Perkins. The Dutch twins 

Shaw. Big people and little people of other lands. 

Stevenson. Child's garden of verses. 

For suggestions as to general reading read those articles applica- 
ble to grades three and four which are referred to on page 14, Les- 
sons on the Use of the School Library. 

Fifth and Sixth Years 

1. Puipose and scope. The mechanics of reading begun in the 
preceding grades must now be made habitual. Whatever impres- 
sions are made should be deepened by repetition. The pupils should 
now acquire, if they have not already acquired, the reading habit 
and should commit to mem.ory an abundance of worthy literary se- 
lections. These grades should read at least a fourth and a fifth, or 
two fourth or two fifth readers, depending upon the difficulty of the 
readers used. Supplement these basic readers by hero stories and 
tales. See history stories for fifth and sixth grades under the sub- 
ject History. If there are enough of any of these books in the li- 
brary for the class, use them for informational purposes. The les- 
sons should be studied and recited topically, in the class. As a 
rule do not have oral reading from these informational books after 
the lesson has been prepared. The books should be closed and the 
class conducted as is a history class. Do not ask the pupils to read 
the lesson. It is the teacher's business to test them on what they 
have read. Much reading may be done if she simply discusses with 
the pupils the substance read. Historical and geographical books 
found listed for these grades will supply suitable material. Much 
reading should be done from children's magazines, papers and 
books approved by the Boy Scout movement, etc. Develop the power 
of choice in reading and occasionally have artistic reading of favorite 
selections. 

2. Formal exercises. Give special lessons on interpreting dia- 
critical marks, getting the meaning of difficult words from the con- 
text, in the use of the dictionary for the meaning of new words and 
for discriminating between the several definitions of individual 
words. Both teacher and pupil should get the dictionary habit, and 
both should get, or better have, the reading habit. 

3. Dramatization. Continue the dramatic element of the read- 
ing lessons through the grades. If this is done it will develop much 
more interest and lead to a keener insight into the class reading. 



READING 41 

When practical children should be given some place about the 
schoolhouse at recess or noon where they may rehearse orally their 
interpretation of the reading lesson. Much of the success of this 
kind of reading, however, depends upon the teacher's attitude toward 
it. It should be taken seriously but when anything amusing occurs 
the children should be permitted to laugh and the teacher should 
laugh with them. It is an accomplishment to know when to laugh. 

4. Home reading. There are always some girls and boys, espe- 
cially boys, who do not care for reading and there are others so in- 
fatuated by books that they read everything that they can procure. 
To find out what will interest the one and how to change the other 
to wise lines of reading is a problem for the teacher. The pupil who 
does not like to read must be encouraged to read: the one who 
reads too much and without discrimination must have his habit di- 
rected by tactful suggestion and the one who reads too many novels 
must be led to an interest in other kinds of literature. Stanley 
Hall says: "Boys care very little for style, but must have incidents 
and heroes. Girls prefer domestic stories and those with characters 
like themselves and scenes more like those with which they are 
familiar." Teachei*s may very profitably give credit in the reading 
class for the reading of a certain number of books approved by the 
teacher. A written report of these books may be made in these 
and succeeding grades. 

a. Book report — Written 

( 1 ) Title Author *. Publisher 

(2) Classify book as: Story 

Novel 

(3) Characterize it as: humorous, pathetic, thrilling, dry. 

(4) Name and describe the chief characters. 

(5) Where is the scene laid, and what period of time? 

(6) Relate the incident you liked best, and describe the 

most vivid scene in the book. 

(7) Would you recommend the book to other members 

of the class? Why? 

b. Book report — Oral 

For an oral book report see geography, page 151. 

The teacher should often have oral book reports and insist on 
their being given in an entertaining and interesting manner. In 
this connection read "Reports on Books Read," page 14, Lessons on 
the Use of the School Library. 

5. Library lessons. Teach the lessons assigned to the Reading 
Class, Grade 5 and Grade 6, page 20, Lessons on the Use of the 
School Library. 



42 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

6. Library reading for fifth and sixth grades. All these books 
are on the Township Library List of 1916-18. 

Andrews. Ten boy? who lived on the road from long ago to now 

Arabian nights 

Baldwin. Four great ^Lmericans 

Blaisdell. Stories from English history 

Brown. In the days of giants 

Burnett. Little Lord Fauntleroy 

Defoe. Robinson Crusoe 

Eastman. Indian child life 

Edgeworth. Waste not, want not, and other stories (O'Shea) 

Field. The Eugene Field book 

Gale. Achilles and Hector 

Headland. Our little Chinese cousin 

Jenks. Childhood of Ji-Shib, the Ojibway 

Otis. Peter of New Amsterdam 

Otis. Toby Tyler 

Paine. Arkansaw bear 

Pyle. Some merry adventures of Robin Hood 

Rame. Child of Urbino 

Schwartz. Five little strangers 

Seawell. Little Jarvis 

Seton. Krag and Johnny Bear 

Sewell. Black Beauty 

Spyri. Heidi 

Stoddard. Talking leaves 

Wyss. Swiss family Robinson 

For further suggestions as to general reading by pupils of these 
grades, see list of articles on page 14, Lessons on the Use of the 
School Library. 

Seventh and Eighth Years 

1. Readers and periodicals. These grades should read at least 
two sixth or seventh grade readers for the basic work. Encourage 
silent reading from library books. In addition to this they should 
read agricultural journals, and such magazines as Popular Mechan- 
ics, St. Nicholas and the National Geographic Magazine. 

2. Intensive and general reading. Study intensively certain se- 
lections as types to develop the power of choice. The material se- 
lected for this should be good literature and should be adapted to 
the age of development of the children. After this, read topics of 
the day from newspapers and magazines. Show the difference be- 
tween literature and common newspaper information. 

3. liibrary. Encourage the use of the dictionary and library to 
solve the meaning. Give only enough help on idioms and difficult 
phrases to have pupils able to study intelligently. Stimulate ener- 
getic and well directed effort by proper questions during the as- 
signment. Excite self activity and be responsive and appreciative 
to every honest effort of pupils. 



READING 43 

4. Rapidity. Develop power to read rapidly for substance as 
contrasted with intensive study. Assign certain selections to be 
read in a given time and then test to find out who has read the most 
and the most accurately. 

5. Setting. Selections having a geographical or historical back- 
ground should be given the proper setting before being studied. 
The pupils should be able to picture the country and to follow when 
reading the location of places and anecdotes referred to. Map work 
before reading proper is not geography but a necessary phase of 
reading. Maps and their interpretation are as necessarily a part 
of the reading work of these grades as is the dictionary. Do not 
spend time on reading matter beyond the comprehension of the 
pupils, or when the spirit or social conditions of the times are not 
understood. 

A recitation or two to prepare the class for an intelligent study 
of the lesson may at times be needed if the selection is to be used. 

6. Silent reading. Have much silent reading under the direction 
of the teacher. 

a. Thought-provoking questions should be given by the teacher 
during the assignment. The pupils then search for the answers. 
The one finding an answer first reads. 

b. Each child reads a different book or story and then reads 
the mo'st interesting part to the class. He should be able to give a 
brief synopsis preceding and succeeding his incident. 

e. Each child with a book chosen by himself or the teacher 
makes a written report of it. He may also make a synopsis of it. 

d. After studying a selection the pupil reads aloud and asks 
questions of the other members of the class on his reading. 

e. Have the pupils select a member of the class to read a selec- 
tion to the school for opening exercises. 

f. The class is given a certain time to read, after which books 
are closed and pupils are tested to see who can give the most in- 
formation. 

7. Home reading and study. "The time has come when much 
home study and collateral reading may be required and when chil- 
dren may be permitted and encouraged to read along lines in which 
they are specially interested. An increased interest in reading is 
characteristic of this period. The first impulse to greater interest 
in reading comes at the eighth year; it increases steadily to twelve 
years, and then takes a rapid rise to fourteen, reaching its height 
at fifteen. An investigation of books used by boys shows that they 
use books of travel, adventure, and biography; while girls prefer 
fiction. The thirst at this time must be satisfied and parents and 
teachers can well afford to spend much time and thought upon the 
selection of reading material for so important a period." 



44 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

8. Physical and spiritual changes. "The physical disturbances 
occurring during the upper grammar period and immediately fol- 
lowing it are shown in the increase in size and in height. There is 
an enlargement and functioning of all the organs, and elongation 
of the vocal cord, increase in the volume of the heart, etc. The 
whole system is undergoing a change. Nervous centers, glands, 
voluntary and involuntary muscles — everything is affected. There 
is an influx of new sensations — mind fills with hopes, dreams, tem- 
pestuous passions, and new ideas. The spirit of independence is 
developing, egoism is giving way to altruism, social impulses are 
becoming dominant, and the reasoning powers are coming into vig- 
orous use. The very worst things are liable to happen at this time 
of greatest of dangers. Ideals are now in the process of formation, 
and they may be either high or low." — Briggs and Coffman. 

9. Library Lesions. Teach the lessons assigned to t,he Reading 
Class, Grade 7, and Grade 8, pages 2 and 21, Lessons on the Use 
of tile School Library. 

10. Library reading for seventh and eighth grades. The books 
are all on the Township Library List of 1916—18. 

Alcott. Little women 

Baldwin. Abraham Lincoln, a true life 

Brooks. True story of George Washington 

Baylor. Juan and Juanita 

Chaucer. Stories from Chaucer told the children (Kelman) 

Clemens. Adventures of Tom Sawyer 

Clemens. Travels at home 

Dickens. Adventures of Oliver Twist 

Dodge. Hans Brinker 

Du Cliaillu. Land of the long night 

Eggleston. Hoosier schoolboy 

Forman. Stories of useful inventions 

Frost. Knights of the round table 

Harris. Uncle Remus 

Hawthorne. Wonderbook ; 

Hughes. Tom Brown's school days 

Kipling. Captains courageous 

Kipling. Jungle book 

Lamb. Tales from Shakespeare 

Lange. On the trail of the Sioux 

Moffet. Careers of danger and daring 

Page. Two little confederates 

Parton. Captains of industry 

Rolt-Wlieeler. Boy with the U. S. life savers 

Ruskin. King of the Golden River 

Riley. The James Whitcomb Riley reader 

Slocum. Around the world in the sloop Spray 

Stoddard. Guert Ten Eyck 

Tomlinson. The young defenders 

Velvin. Wild animal celebrities 



READING 45 

For suggestions as to outside reading, see articles referred to on 
page 14, Lessons on the Use oi; the School Library. 



III. TESTS FOR GRADtJATION 

1. The pupils should read understandingly to others, not only 
selections from the regular readers, but from other sources. 

2. They should read intelligently the textbooks and supplemen- 
tary textbooks. 

3. They should know the resources of the dictionai-y and have 
developed the habit of using it when in need of the help it can give. 

4. They should have developed pleasing tones and the ability to 
place the emphasis on any part of a word or sentence. 

5. They should' have stored in their minds many choice memory 
gems and at least one good selection for every past school year. 

6. They should have become acquainted with, and developed a 
preference for good literature. 

7. They should be able to pass an examination on the principal 
pieces of literature studied during the past year. 

8. They should enjoy reading in some fleld of good literature. 

9. Each pupil should have read at least one-half dozen library 
books outside of the regular school work during the past year. 

10. They should be familiar with the lives and some of the 
writings of at least six noted American writers. 

11. They should be familiar with the current papers and mag- 
azines dealing with country life. 



IV. REFERENCE FOR TEACHERS 

Betts & Hall. Better rural schools. (T) 

Briggs & Coffman. Reading- in the public schools. (T) 

Carney. Country life and the country school, (T) 

Charters. Teaching the common branches. (T) 

Colby. Literature and life. Houghton 

Curtis. Play and recreation for the open country. (T) 

Foglit. The American rural school. (T) 

Hosic. Elementary course in English. University of Chicago 
Press, Chicago 

Kendall & Mirick. How to teach the fundamental subjects. 
Houghton 

Kennedy. Rural life and the rural school. (T) 

Klapper. Teaching children to read. (T) 

MacClintock. Literature in the elementary school. (T) 

McMurray. Handbook of practice for teachers. Macmillan 

Patzer. Modern methods of teaching language, Reading, Spell- 
ing. H. M. Dixon & Co., Chicago 

Reynolds. Suggestions on the teaching of reading. Published 
by the State Superintendent, Madison, Wis. 

Sawyer. Five messages to teachers of primary reading. (T) 



46 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



SCHOOL LIBRARY 



There is no part of the school equipment which is of greater im- 
portance than the school library. It represents a phase of educa- 
tion which has vital significance throughout life. When school 
days are over people, as a rule, have nothing further to do with 
textbooks. Library books, on the other hand, promote that kind 
of reading which they will be likely to do when school days are 
over, if given the proper training v/hile in school. 

How to bring about such use of the school library on the part 
of pupils as will make them intelligent users of printed matter, 
both for reference and general reading, is one of the most impor- 
tant problems of the school. In view^ of this fact the State De- 
partment of Education at the beginning of the school year 1915-16 
distributed to the schools oi the state a publication entitled "Les- 
sons on the Use of the School Library." In this publication will be 
found definite lessons to be given in the various grades and classes 
of the school course. Teachers should by all means give these 
lessons or their equivalents. In connection with the various sub- 
jects outlined in the present manual, the use that should be made 
of "Lessons on the Use of the School Library" is indicated. The 
work thus outlined is an integral part of the common school course 
as presented in this manual. 

When pupils have been given any particular lesson from "Les- 
sons on the Use of the School Library," they should thenceforth 
be held responsible for the practical application of the instruction 
given so that they will make much use of the library on their own 
initiative. This will be a potent means of training in the effective 
use of books and reading. 

In order that the library may serve its purpose, it should be in 
such a condition with regard to organization and care as is de- 
scribed on pages 8 to 12 of "Lessons on the Use of the School 
Library." Library regulations prepared by the state superintend- 
ent, in accordance with the provisions of the law, will be found 
on pages XIII to XV Township Library List of 1910-11. For pur- 
poses of book selection use should be made of the latest List of 
Books for Township Libraries. 



SPELLING 47 



SPELLING 



I. GENERAL, SUGGESTIONS 

1. Taught in reading and language. All spelling for the first four 
grades will of necessity have to be done in connection with the 
reading and language classes. The fifth and sixth grades should 
recite in one class and the seventh and eighth grades in another 
class. The material for spelling in the first grades should be taken 
from the daily lessons in reading, geography, arithmetic, and such 
other subjects as the class is studying. Select, if possible, those 
words that are in the pupils' written vocabularies. After these are 
taught take those in the pupils' spoken or lingual vocabularies. 
Prom the fifth to the eighth grades, inclusive, the spelling book is 
to be used in addition to words taken from the subjects other than 
spelling. 

2. Spelling Tablets. Every pupil should have a spelling tablet 
or notebook for the written work in place of loose sheets of paper. 
In this should be written in vertical columns all words in the les- 
son. Have the pupil rewrite the words missed, arranging them 
alphabetically in the back part of the spelling tablet. To these 
should be added such words as he often misses in other studies 
or in common conversation. Use these words occasionally as a 
lesson for the whole class. This should be done in addition to the 
review given upon them from day to day. 

3. Home List of Words. Encourage children to keep a list of 
the correct forms of words commonly misspelled by them posted 
in some conspicuous place in their homes. This list can be easily 
reviewed, added to, and certain words erased as soon as the cor- 
rect forms become fixed. 

4. Spelling Matches. Frequently have the fifth and sixth grades 
spell against the seventh and eighth. Occasionally use a first or 
second reader for the text. About once a month on Friday after- 
noons, in place of the regular recitations, have the whole school 
spell down. If a county spelling contest is conducted in your 
county, do not fail to have your school represented by the best 
speller at the township contest from which the best speller will go 
to the county contest. 



48 MANUAL OFTHB ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

Secure the Premium Bulletin containing a list of words to bo 
used in the State Pair Spelling Contest. You will need this if 
your county is organized to take part in the State Fair Contest 
and, if it is not, the words are good to use as supplementary to the 
speller. It may be secured by addressing Commissioner C. P. Nor- 
gord, Madison, Wis. 

5. Mistakes in Spelling. The following are some of the more 
common causes of errors in spelling: 

a. Mispronunciation of word on the part of the teacher; 

b. Indistinct or obscure pronunciation by the pupil of the short 
v^owels at the close of syllables; 

c. Silent letters or the doubling of letters; 

d. The drawing of unwarranted phonetic analogies; 

e. The wandering of the attention from the word being spelled or 
a chance error because of a lapse of the attention. 

6. Studies in Spelling. Many valuable investigations or studies 
have been made recently in an effort to determine the words most 
commonly used in different sorts of English writing. The most ex- 
tensive studies that have been attempted were by Rev. J. Knowles, 
London, England, who took passages from the Bible and noted au- 
thors containing 100,000 words. Prom this list he found 353 
words occurring most frequently. R. '0. Eldridge, Niagara Palls, 
from a total vocabulary of 6,002 words found in the Sunday news- 
papers of Buffalo, selected those most commonly used. Leonard 
P. Ayers, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, selected the number 
used most frequently in 2000 short business letters, and W. A. 
Cook, Denver, Colo, and M. V. O'Shea, Madison, Wis., selected a 
list from the family correspondence of thirteen adults. In every 
one of these studies it was found that ten words recur so frequently 
that they constitute about one-fourth of all words written. They 
are, written in the order of frequency used, as follows: the, and, 
of, to, I, a, in, that, you, for. 

Leonard P. Ayers, from a tabulation of the frequencies with 
which all the words occurred, selected 1000 of the commonest 
words. These, together with their repetitions, constituted nine- 
tenths of all words used in the studies given. He submitted them 
to 70,000 children in grades from the second to the eighth, inclu- 
sive, in 84 cities throughout the country. Prom a tabulation of 
the results received he found the words that M^ere spelled correctly 
by each grade. With this list of words as a standard, any teacher 
may determine whether the children in the different grades in hei 
school are up to their grade in spelling as determined by this study. 
The list may be secured for 5 cents. Address: Leonard P. Ayers, 
Russell Sage Foundation, New York City. The books giving the 
results of some of the above studies are given in the reference list 
for teachers at the close of this subject. 



SPELLING 49 



II. COURSE OF STUDY 

First and Second Years 

The spelling during the first two years should consist of word- 
building with the simple and compound phonograms. Words built 
from pTionic elements, such as "ack", "ang", and "ight", may be 
■written or spelled orally by the pupils in the reading class. Some 
of the more simple sight words may be taught but as a rule only 
words that are phonetically spelled should be attempted. Addi- 
tional practice in spelling will be given in connection with the writ- 
ten work. Combinations of letters must be taught in this class 
and it helps both the reading and spelling of the child if both sight 
and phonic words taken from the reading are used. 

Third and Fourth Years 

1. Teach spelling. Recent tests have shown that intensive work 
of a very definite kind should be done in the third and fourth 
grades. A few words chosen each day from the pupils' other 
studies should constitute the material for this grade. As a rule 
not more than eight or ten words requiring study should be as- 
signed daily and half of those should be review words previously 
given. Many teachers give too many words in each lesson, and 
too much of the time in the past has been devoted to testing the 
pupils in place of teaching them. Take time to teach the pupils 
how to study the words. It is just as important that pupils be 
taught proper habits of study in spelling, and that teachers teach 
the subject, as it is in any other one of the school subjects. 

2. Distinct pronunciation. In oral spelling the pupil should pro- 
nounce every word before attempting to spell, and pronounce it so 
distinctly that every sound may be heard by the teacher and class. 
Particular care should be exercised at the close of syllables ending 
in cuEpressed vowels. The children should give the full value to 
every syllable. Much time and annoyance will be saved if this is 
done. A child who cannot pronounce a word correctly stands little 
show of spelling it and at the same time slovenly pronunciation 
is made habitual. 

3. Make use of eye, ear and muscular senses. Frequent drills 
in correct pronunciation and distinct articulation should be given. 
They are designed to give variety, speed, and interest to the spell- 
ing period. In order that they be most effective a multiple sense 
appeal must be made. Sorrre children are visual minded, some au- 
ditory minded, and some motor minded. To meet the conditions 
of all children the drills must appeal to all three of the powers. We 
should, therefore, give the child an opportunity to get the worA 

4— S. M. 



50 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

through the eye, the ear, and the muscular senses. Each method 
reinforces the other. 

4. Secure active attention. In all work in spelling much de- 
pends upon the rapidity, vigor and energy put into :.t. Teachers 
should pronounce words rapidly, work in a snappy manner and 
show by their actions a real interest in the subject. Active atten- 
tion is not secured by a lifeless teacher. 

5. Dictionary. Teach the use of the school dictionary in these 
and all succeeding grades. The abridged form is preferable up to 
the sixth grade. Teach the lessons indicated for the third and 
fourth grade spelling classes on pages 16 and 17, Lessons on the 
Use of the School Library. 

6. Methods of assignment 

a. First method 

(1) The teacher should write words slowly on the black- 
board, having children spell by sound as she writes; children pro- 
nounce words. Now have them spell by letter, pronouncing each 
syllable after spelling it, and pronounce the word again. Study 
the difficulties of the word and concentrate on those parts. Teacher 
should now give meaning and then erase; children spell again. 

(2) After all words have been studied in this way, have pu- 
pils spell again. Study the difficult parts of the word and have rapid 
oral spelling around the class by pupils having difficulty with spell- 
ing. 

b. Second method 

(1) Pupils pass to the board. With backs to the board, face 
the teacher. Teacher pronounces and a designated pupil spells orally, 
then all spell orally in concert. At a signal "turn," all face the 
board and write. Now discuss difficult parts. Every difficult word 
has one or more critical points. These should be pointed out by the 
use of colored crayon. A letter or group of letters may be made to 
stand out prominently by being made larger or by putting them in 
another color. If necessary develop meaning of the word and have 
some pupil use it in a sentence. 

(2) Continue in this way until all words are written. Now 
have all study the list for a brief time; erase; dictate the list rapidly 
again; or, after erasing, have pupils write list from memory. 

7. Seat study 

a. Pupil studies the word, closes the book or puts hand over the 
word and spells silently, then compares with the word. Continue 
until all words are mastered. Close book and spell silently all words 
possible. If unable to spell many of the words, open the book and, 
after a short time of study, try again; then write as many words as 
possible from memory. 

b. Have the pupils build all words possible on some common root. 

c. Pupils select words from other subjects for the next day's 
lesson and bring them to class for drill purposes. 



SPELLING 51 

8. Methods for the recitation 

a. ¥irst method. Once a week have a review of all difficult 
words spelled during the week. Let this review be both oral and 
written. In the oral test have the class decide at the close who has 
done the best work in the class during the test. In deciding this, 
distinct pronunciation as well as correct spelling is to be considered. 
Place the names of the pupils upon the blackboard and a star opposite 
the name of the winner in the oral contest. For the written work, 
have the pupils all pass to the blackboard. Dictate the words rapidly 
and at the close have pupils move one place to the right and correct 
the work. Let pupils spell the words aloud in turn around the class 
and all of them mark the lists of words for mistakes. A record of 
the best written speller may be kept in the same way as that kept for 
the best oral speller. 

b. Second method. When spelling orally, if a pupil misses a 
word, have it corrected, then have him step to the blackboard and 
write it correctly in the presence of the class. Next have him erase 
the word and spell it orally. 

c. Third method. Teach a fable or poem. The next day after 
calling attention to the difficult words have the children write an 
original story from it. At the close of the recitation the teacher and 
children should pick out the words misspelled. Use these for drill. 

d. Fourth method (flash method). Write the list of words 
in a vertical column on the blackboard. Cover them with the roller 
map. Raise the map showing the lowest word for an instant, then 
draw map over it. Have first one pupil and then another spell. Treat 
every word this way in turn. Let the work be rapid. When the 
pupils become proficient in this, raise the map so as to show two or 
three words at once. Vary this method by writing the words on cards 
and exposing them to the view of pupils for only a second or two. 



Fifth to Eighth Years. 

1. Speller and other sources. The teacher should use some good 
speller, supplementing it by words selected from .subjects studied. 
Let the pupils select these words as a part of their seat work. The 
teacher may then add such words as have been omitted by the pu- 
pils. They .should be trained to scrutinize iiew words closely with 
a view of finding and mastering difficulties, and also trained to as- 
sociate the sound of the word with its meaning. After the words 
are studied they should be reviewed the next day and the next day, 
then the next week. This drill-day after day and week after week, 
by either oral or written work, fixes the word forms. It is the fre- 
quency of recall which insures the retention of correct word forms. 

2. Dictionary. Teach the lessons assigned to the fifth, sixth* sev- 
enth, and eighth grade spelling classes on pages 17, 18, and 19, Les- 
sons on the Use of the School Library. 



52 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

3. Methods for assignment 

a. Read methods for assignment under third and fourth grades. 

b. It is frequently necessary to pronounce the words in the new 
lesson for pupils in the fifth to the eighth grades, and to call atten- 
tion to the difficult parts in them. It is well for the teacher to spell 
the word and to pause before and after the difficult part. Illustra- 
tion: "sep-a-rate", "s-i-eve", *'unti-l". However, pupils should be 
encouraged and required as soon as possible to get the pronunciation 
from the dictionary. Those words in the speller already known by 
the pupils should be discarded and attention directed only to those 
giving difficulty. 

4. Methods for the written recitation 

a. Method one. 

(1) See third and fourth grades. 

(2) Teacher pronounces rapidly and pupils write. 

(3) Pupils exchange papers. 

(4) One pupil spells the words, syllabicating and pronounc- 
ing syllables, if pupils are in the habit of running syllables together 
in pronouncing or spelling. It is a good plan at least once a week 
to have all words in the lesson syllabicated and syllables pronounced. 
All mark papers on scale of 100. Papers returned to owners. 

(5) Words misspelled are written correctly at bottom of 
spelling blank. 

(6) Teacher collects the papers and takes the record of the 
class. 

b. Method two. Vary method 1, No. 4, by calling upon differ- 
ent pupils to spell. Another variation may be made by having the 
teacher spell the words in place of the pupils. 

c. Method three 

(1) One pupil pronounces the words and all others write. 

(2) After one pupil has pronounced for a few days, have 
another and then another. The pupil pronouncing must pronounce 
distinctly so as to be heard by all members of the class. 

d. Method four 

(1) Pupils close books and then write from memory all 
words possible in the lesson. 

(2) Occasionally have each pupil write from memory, as 
far as he can recall, all words missed by him during the last week 
or month. 

e. Method five 

(1) One day each week review all words missed during the 
week. 

(2) Let two pupils choose sides in a written contest on all 
words missed during a certain time. 



SPELLING 53 

5. Methods for the oral recitation 

a. Method one 

(1) The first day of school the pupils are all assembled in a 
straight line at one side or in the front of the room. 

(2) Teacher pronounces the word once only. If the pupil 
misspells it, it is pronounced to the next; if he misses it, to the next 
and so on until it is correctly spelled. 

(3) The pupil spelling it correctly passes above all those 
missing it. 

(4) If the pupil at the foot of the class misses the word and 
it is spelled by the one at the head of the class, the one at the head 
simply holds his place. 

(5) The pupil standing at the head of the class at the close 
of the recitation secures a headmark. This pupil now passes to the 
foot of the class for tomorrow's recitation. 

( 6 ) Headmarks are kept, showing the number of times each 
pupil leaves off at the head, for at least six weeks, when all are 
erased and the contest is renewed. Let pupils choose the color of 
crayon or pencil to be used in keeping headmarks. 

b. Method two. Vary method 1, No. 2. In place of the teacher 
pronouncing the word to the next pupil after it Jias been misspelled, 
she says "wrong". The next pupil then spells it without the teacher 
pronouncing. 

c. Method three. Vary method 1, No. 2. After a word has 
been pronounced by the teacher and spelled by the pupil, either cor- 
rectly or incorrectly, the teacher should pronounce the next word. 
If the word previously pronounced was misspelled by the pupil, the 
next pupil may spell it corectly and pass above him in place of spell- 
ing the word pronounced to him. The teacher will now pronounce 
the word to the next pupil. A word missed may be^spelled by any 
pupil who noticed the mistake and he may then pass above all who 
did not notice it and the one missing it. 

d. Method four. Vary method 1, No. 4, If the pupil at the 
foot of the class, together with several near him, miss a word, the 
one at the head of the class may spell it correctly, leave off at the 
head and pass above all those missing it. By this method it is pos- 
sible for several to leave off at the head during one recitation. 

e. Method five. Combine methods two and three. More inter- 
est may be secured if each method is continued for about two months 
and then another one is used in place of it. 

Any of these methods, especially the last three, demand close at- 
tention to the spelling of every word and in all of them the pupils 
must speak clearly and distinctly or the end is defeated. Pupils 
are often given opportunities of remembering for some time words 
misspelled and not noticed by other pupils. This not only impresses 
the word upon the mind but makes all members of the class alert 
and attentive. Only poor results can be obtained by teachers pro- 
nouncing the words promiscuously around the class. 



54 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

6. Written and oral spelling. Each method of spelling has its 
advocates and each has its advantages over the other. Both oral 
and written should he used by the teacher as the use of both tends 
to secure results not obtained by the use of either alone. Some of 
the advantages and disadvantages of each are as follows: 

a. Advantages of written spelling' 

(1) Written spelling emphasizes the use of the word as it is 
used in everyday life. 

(2) The muscular activity tends to fix the word in the pupil's 
mind. 

(3) Many pupils are eye minded and the written form appeals 
to the eye. 

(4) The teacher is assured all students in the class have spelled 
every word. 

b. Disadvantages of written spelling 

(1) The words as used in everyday life are not written in col- 
umns but are associated with other words. To do this necessitates 
the writing of many words already known and takes too much time. 

(2) Many fewer words can be written than can be spelled or- 
ally in the same time. If good attention is secured, all words are 
spelled in thought by all pupils in oral spelling as well as in written. 

(3) More opportunity is given for cheating. 

(4) In an effort to spell correctly the handwriting is neglected 
and often spoiled. 

c. Advantages of oral spelling 

(1) Many people are ear-minded. 

(2) Much more spelling can be accomplished in a given time. 

(3) Competition between pupils is more pronounced. 

(4) Opportunities for correct pronunciation and distinct ar- 
ticulation are made possible. 

(5) Oral spelling helps to secure correct pronunciation and ar- 
ticulation. 

d. Disadvantages of oral spelling 

(1) We do not use oral spelling in life. 

(2) Some people are motor and eye minded. 

(3) Pupils cannot correct mistakes to as good advantage. 

(4) If headmarks are given the poor students are discouraged. 

7. Rules for spelling. Rules for spelling have so many exceptions 
that they are often as much a hindrance as a help to good spelling. 
It is better to learn to spell so well that the rules are unnecessary. 
They are sometimes taught without the proper application of them 
being made. It is the conscious application of the rule to a large 
number of words that is important. No rule is of any value unless 
the pupils consciously apply it to many words and these words are 
reviewed and reviewed until the application is fixed. If taught at 
all they should come early in the child's school life. The following 
have some value: 

a. Final y, when preceded by a consonant, is generally changed 
to ie when a letter or syllable is added. Ex.: fly, flies; hurry, hurries 



SPELLING 55 



b. Final y, when preceded by a vowel, generally remains un- 
changed when a letter or syllable is added. Ex.: valley, valleys, obey, 
obeys. 

c. In derivatives formed from words ending in ie, by adding the 
termination "ing," the e is usually dropped and the i changed to y. 
Ex.: die, dying; tie, tying. 

d. Exceed, succeed and proceed are the only words in the English 
language ending in "ceed." Supersede is the only word ending in 
"sede." All other "seeds" end in "cede." 



ni. TESTS FOR GRADUATION 

1. Pupils should be able to spell all strictly phonetic words. 

2. They should be able to find a word quickly in the dictionary 
and to learn therefrom how to spell and pronounce it correctly; and 
they should be in the habit of consulting the dictionary for this pur- 
pose whenever necessary. 

3. They should know the great divisions of the dictionary and, 
in general what each contains. 

4. They should be able to make the application of all rules taught 
to words in common use. 

5. They should he able to earn a standing of 96 per cent on the 
following list: 

sometimes, declare, engage, final, terrible, surprise, period, addi- 
tion, employ, property, select, connection, firm, region, convict, pri- 
vate, command, debate, crowd, factory, publish, represent, term, sec- 
tion, relative, progress, entire, president, measure, famous, serve, es- 
tate, remember, either, effort, important, due, include, running, allow, 
position, field, ledge, claim, primary, result, Saturday, appoint, infor- 
mation, whom, arrest, themselves, special, women, present, action, 
justice, gentleman, enclose, await, suppose, wonderful, direction, for- 
ward, although, prompt, attempt, whose, statement, perhaps, their, 
imprison, written, arrange. 

6. They should be able to earn a standing of 84 per cent on the 
following list: 

meant, earliest, whether, distinguish, consideration, colonies, assure, 
»*elief, occupy, probably, foreign, expense, responsible, beginning, ap- 
plication, difficulty, scene, finally, develop, circumstance, issue, ma- 
terial, suggest, mere, senate, receive, respectfully, agreement, unfor- 
tunate, majority, elaborate, citizen, necessary, divide. 

These lists are taken from the monograph by Leonard P. Ayres on 
the ''Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling". 



IV. REFERENCES 

References for pupils 

The list of drill words in spelling for the home county, if one 
is published by the county superintendent. 

The list published by the State Board of Agriculture contain- 
ing words to be used in the State Fair Spelling Contest, 
Q. P. Norgord, Madison, Wis, 



56 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



Webster's elementary school dictionary. Amer. Bk. Co. 
Webster's secondary dictionary. Amer. Bk. Co. 
High school standard dictionary. Funk & Wagnalls Co., N. Y. 
Webster's new international dictionary (for sixth, seventh, and 
eighth grades.) G. & C. Merriam Co., Springfield, Mass. 

2. References for teachers 

Ayres. A measuring scale for abilHy in spelling. Russell Sage 
Foundation, N. Y. City 

Buckingham. Spelling ability, its measurement and distribu- 
tion. Teachers' College, Columbia University, N. Y. City. 

Charters. Teaching the common branches. (T) 

Ck)ok & O'Shea. The child and his spelling. Bobbs. 

Jones. Concrete investigation of the material of English spell- 
ing. W. F. Jones, Vermillion, S. D. i 

Kendall & Mirick. How to teach the fundamental subjects. 
Houghton 

Klapper. The teaching of English. (T) 

Rice. Lessons on the use of the school library. Issued by the 
State Superintendent, Madison, Wis. 

Wallin. Spelling efficiency. Warwick & York. Baltimore, 
Md. 

New standard dictionary. Funk & Wagnalls Co., N. Y. City. 

Webster's new international dictionary. G. & C. Merriam Co., 
Springfield, Mass. 



LANGUAGE .57 



LANGUAGE 



I. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 

1. Functions of language. Language has two functions, both ol 
which should be kept constantly in mind by the teacher. It is (a) an 
instrument of thought and it is (b) a means of communication. The 
first is as important as the second. In a discussion of this subject 
John Dewey mentions "language as a tool of thinking", and James F. 
Hosic in his book "The Elementary Course in English" says that 
"mental actyivity is largely conditioned by language". 

When a teacher realizes fully that the pupil's aMlity to think de- 
pends upon his language equipment, the methods used in teaching 
will be somewhat modified and the importance of the subject itself 
will assume a new significance. It has been generally assumed by 
teachers that language is taught in order that pupils may be able to 
express their thoughts. With the fuller conception of the truth we 
shall teach language primarily to give the children the power to 
think. With this power of thought developed the power of expres- 
sion will more naturally follow. 

We cannot think without language. The more words a person has 
in his vocabulary and the more precise and definite the meanings of 
these words are, the better that person is able to think. An experi- 
ence that is quite common will illustrate this point. A speaker or a 
writer discusses a question in which you are interested and on which 
you have been doing some thinking. A certain phrase or sentence 
impresses you as setting forth in clear and forceful language a 
thought that you have had for some time but which in your mind has 
been somewhat hazy and indefinite. You make note of his words. 
Perhaps you memorize his statements. You say, "That is just what I 
have had in my mind but I have never been able to express it in 
words." The writer or speaker in this case has helped you not only 
to express your thought but has helped you in your thinking. You 
were in need of language, a more adequate vocabulary in order to 
continue your thought process. 

The child then, needs language, first of all to aid him in his think- 
ing. For this reason the material that we select for language exer- 
cises should be rich in thought content. Empty words, phrases, and 
unrelated statements are of little value for language purposes. Fur- 
thermore, it should be kept in mind constantly that the language 



58 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

material must be full of thought content for the child. The school 
too often makes a mistake in selecting materal in which the adult 
thinks the child ougUt to be interested, thus violating one of the most 
fundamental principles of education. 

The great opportunity of the teacher in the language work of the 
school is, therefore, to bring before the child in conversation, story, 
or by other means, language material that will help him in develop- 
ing the powers of his mind, especially the power of thinking. With 
the mental powers active and growing, expression will follow. This 
expression can then be modified by practice to conform to the usage 
of good writers and speakers. 

The functions of language as set forth above should be impressed 
upon the minds of students in institutions where teachers are trained. 
An excellent discussion is given in Dewey's "How to Think", p. 170- 
87. 

2. Motives. The success of language teaching depends to a 
great extent upon the motive the children have for learning the sub- 
ject. 

The following suggestions may be helpful to teachers: 

a Organize a literary society or a club in school to meet weekly 
or by-weekly on Friday afternoons after recess. The same sugges- 
tion is made in connection with the course of study in civics. Such a 
society impresses upon the children the value of knowing how to 
speak and write well. Besides, the programs prepared by the chil- 
dren for these meetings have a distinct language value in themselves. 

b Have the children participate in special programs to which 
patrons are invited. This gives them a special incentive for doing 
their language work well. 

c Encourage the children to write to their friends and discuss 
with the pupils topics that would make profitable correspondence. 
Let them write letters to real persons and send them. 

d Suggest to the children that they recite the poems, tell the 
stories, play the language games and sing the songs at home which 
they learn at school. Make a special effort to have them do the work 
well. We do not appreciate the happiness that the school can con- 
tribute to the home by encouraging the children to show the progress 
they are making. 

e The children may, in connection with their literary society, 
edit a "school paper" consisting of news items and short composi- 
tions. In this way even short rhymes modeled after well-known 
poems may be written. If properly managed this undertaking does 
much to encourage originality among the children. The teacher 
m]List, of course look over the items to see that no abuse is made of 
the practice. 

f Keeping a diary gives a pupil some good practice, especially if 
his enthusiasm is aroused by reading an interesting diary like Louisa 
Alcott's Journal. 



LANGUAGE 59 

g In a few schools it is a practice to publish occasionally some 
of the pupils' compositions in local papers. This is worthy of more 
general adoption. 

h Neat booklets containing compositions (sometimes illustrated) 
may be made. The topics may be historical, geographical, civic, etc. 
In this work there is opportunity to cultivate in the children initiative 
and originality. This work, however, must not be overdone and 
care must be taken that the compositions do not get to be mere copies 
of cyclopedic articles. This written work should not be taken up 
until oral work has been done and an outline made for the composi- 
tion. 

i In every possible way cultivate in the children a desire to use 
good language. The teacher's example has a great influence upon the 
children's attitude toward the use of proper language. A teacher 
who uses "meaningless slang or silly superlatives" cannot expect to 
have the pupils use good English. On the other hand, a teacher who 
is careful in the use of words and who is constantly working to en- 
large and enrich the children's vocabularies will find that as a re- 
sult of such efforts the children take a pride in using correct and 
proper expressions. 

j Some of the regular written work should be preserved in order 
that children may note the progress they are making. If this work 
is examined by the county superintendent and the supervising teacher 
it will be an incentive for the children to do their best. 

3. Correlation. The language work of the school must be cor- 
related with the other school subjects. This correlation is two-fold: 
a. The other subjects, including their applications in everyday affairs, 
must be drawn upon for language material; b. The powers of thought 
and expression gained in the language class must be applied in the 
other subjects and in everyday life. Every recitation should be an 
exercise in language. 

4. Oral language work should predominate in the elementary 
school. When we consider the ratio that talking bears to writing 
in life we realize the necessity of giving a much greater share of the 
time and attention in school to the cultivation of the powers of oral 
expression. The ability to converse intelligently and pleasingly, to 
tell a story entertainingly, and to use choice language naturally, are 
accomplishments which are results of careful training and persistent 
practice in oral composition. 

5. Written work. Many schools require too much written work 
in the different subjects as well as in the regular language class. 
Three evil results follow such a practice: a. The work is carelessly 
done and the children form bad habits; b. The pupils form a dislike 
for the work itself; c. The teachers are overloaded with work. 

Oral composition should be the foundation for written composition. 
Oral composition bears the same relation to written composition that 
oral arithmetic bears to written arithmetic. 



60 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

6. Language habits. Correct usage of language is due to habit. 
If a child uses an incorrect expression it is because he has acquired 
a bad language habit. To help him we must proceed in the same way 
that we would proceed to break up any other habit. The correct 
form must be presented (the reason for such form need not neces- 
sarily be understood) and then sufficient practice must be given to fix 
it. To introduce these corrections by means of games and plays is 
one of the most effective methods of establishing the right expres- 
sions. It is not enough merely to have the child learn what the 
correct form is. 

Drill on correct forms may also be given to prevent the formation 
of bad language habits. 

The work that should be done in correcting errors in speech may 
vary in different communities. The errors noted in this course are 
quite common everywhere and will need to be given attention in all 
communities. Other forms may need attention in particular localities. 

In this course of study drills on certain forms have been suggested 
for each class. Review should also be given of the work of all pre- 
vious classes. 

In some cases it may be possible to secure the cooperation of the 
homes in establishing correct expressions. This must be done very 
judiciously and tactfully. Children may be trained to correct one 
another's errors, and thus bring about a cooperation that is helpful. 
Children should be cautioned against correcting the errors of speech 
made by their elders, unless the elders themselves take the initiative 
and request the children to do so. 

7. Phases which need constant attention. Correct pronuncia- 
tion, distinct enunciation, accurate spelling, and careful punctuation 
are phases of language work that should always be given attention. 

8. Tests of a gocd language textbook. The Course of Study here 
presented is not designed to be so complete as to make the use of a 
good language text unnecessary. 

"Among all the sources of stimulus the good teacher and the good 
book take superlative rank." The teacher must keep, close watch of 
the progress of her pupils and not simply teach a textbook no matter 
how good it is. Some of the questions that a teacher should be able 
to answer in the affirmative regarding a language book which she 
selects for use, after critically examining a number of language books, 
are the following: 

a. Does it use really significant topics chosen from geography, 
history and nature study to promote growth in language power? 

b. Does the author encourage intelligent imitation of good models 
as the way par excellence to acquire ability to write? 

c. Are there lessons provided for considerable and varied practice 
on correct forms of pronouns, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, etc.? Is 
there enough repetition suggested? 

d. Does the book utilize and enlarge the common experiences of 
children? 



LANGUAGE 61 

e. Does it emphasize vocabulary work? 

f. Does it give a series of well organized lessons on friendship 
and business letters, invitations, acceptances, etc.? 

g. Does it stimulate desire for expression by containing care- 
fully planned and attractive conversational lessons? 

h. Does it contain dictation exercises based largely on previous 
work, which illustrate excellent sentence structure? Moreover, do 
these dictation exercises call upon pupils to apply their knowledge 
of punctuation, capitalization, margining, correct placing, etc., etc.? 

i. Does the author appreciate that we should not "skirmish around 
the outposts" of grammar in the intermediate grades, but that we 
should wait at least until the last year of the elemenary school to 
"boldly attack and conquer it"? 

j. Does the author present, both by his preface and by the de- 
tailed plan of his book, evidence that he has learned by experience 
with children, as well as by his educational equipment for the task, 
how to compile a language book? Does he know how to helpfully 
guide children by enriching their language, directing their sympathies, 
extending the range of their interests, and inciting their teachers 
to recognize the rich abundance of language material which lies on 
every hand? 

There are such language books published. Some of them are 
already in the hands of children. Many children not so fortunate as 
to have an excellent language book in their own hands are yet fortu- 
nate enough to have teachers who have two or three desk copies of 
good language books which they make much use of in planning their 
language work. 

However, the children should have in their own possession good 
language books and teachers should not rest satisfied until pupils 
have the benefit of the best recent thought embodied in the making 
of language texts. 

9. County uniformity. There are some excellent reasons for 
having a minimum list of uniform stories, poems and pictures to be 
studied throughout any county: 

a. Teachers can frequently use them for purposes of illustration, 
review, comparison, etc. 

b. Children will gradually come to the conviction that there is 
a canon of poetry, literature, and pictures, which is a part of the 
inheritance of every child. 

c. Teachers will not then tell children in one grade a story or 
teach them a poem as if it were new to them, and then find out that 
these same children learned the poem or told the story in a previous 
grade. 

d. The questions asked in diploma examinations in language 
and reading will become more specific. "Teaching is never any more 
specific and definite than the tests by which it is measured." 

e. Students who are preparing to become rural-school teachers, 
whether in County Training Schools, High School Training Depart- 



62 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

ments, or Hural Departments of Normal Schools, may be prepared 
definitely to do well tlie work they will be expected to do. 

10. Librarj^ reading. An exceedingly important phase of the 
language work is to interest the children in the library books. Per- 
haps no other factor will enrich a persons vocabulary and thus de- 
velop the thought powers as much as the reading of good books. 
Such reading also influences a person's style of speaking and writing. 

11. Use of the dictionary. Special lessons showing how the chil- 
dren may be taught to use the dictionary in connection with their 
language and grammar work are given in the pamphlet "Lessons on 
the Use of the School Library", p. 33-43. 



II. COURSE OF STUDY 
First and Second Years 

Since the children of the first and second years will constitute one 
group in the country school, the work for this group is given as one 
unit. 

1. Oral Mork 

a. Conversational exercises in which the teacher talks with the 
children about their experiences and observations. The topics that 
may be taken up may vary depending upon the environment and the 
things in which the children are interested. Among the topics which 
may be appropriate are stories about their pets and the animals on 
the farm; incidents of everyday life that have happened as, "Our trip 
on the Fourth of July"; interesting things in nature, such as flowers, 
birds, and insects, work they do at home to help their parents; pic- 
tures that appeal to children (see following list); etc. The subject 
should be one concerning which the children will desire both to give 
and receive information. These exercises should not be conducted 
like "recitations", with the teacher asking questions and the children 
answering. The teacher should be as one of the group, contribut- 
ing and directing, but continually drawing out the children's power of 
expression. To prevent the exercise from degenerating into aimless 
talk the teacher should decide what the purpose of the lesson is to be, 
such as increasing the children's vocabulary, making their vocabulary 
more precise, creating a love for nature or art, etc. The emotional 
phase should be kept in mind as well as the intellectual. 

b. Picture study. The following pictures are suggested for 
this class: 

(1) Fall 

Can't you talk Holmes 

The pet bird Von Bremen 

Piper and nut crackers Landseer 

Four little scamps Adams 

The escaped cow Dupre 



LANGUAGE 63 



(2) Winter 

The Nativity LeRolle 

Madonna (teacher's choice) 

Family cares Barnes 

Baby Stuart Van Dyck 

(3) Spring 

Primary school in Brittany Geoffrey 

The churning Millet 

Saved Landseer 

At the watering trough Dagnan-Bouveret 

Miss Bowles Reynolds 

Feeding the birds Millet 

c. Reproductions of stories told to the children by the teacher. 

The material for this work is to be found in fables, folk-lore, fairy 
tales, hero tales from liistory and stories relating to the great cele- 
brations such as Thanksgiving, Christmas, Washington's and Lincoln's 
birthdays, Memorial Day and the Fourth of July. As the stories 
grow in length train the children to observe the time sequence. 
Begin early work against the practice of stringing several sentences 
together with and. Show children how statements may be combined 
and how other connectives may be used, such as after a while, 'before 
long, soon, etc. Train the children early to stand properly while 
talking to the class and to assume an easy position. Do not let chil- 
dren form incorrect habits of position. Also give attention to the 
voice and endeavor to have the children cultivate pleasing tones in 
their speech. The teacher's example is of great importance in this 
respect. After a child has learned to tell a story well he may be 
asked to tell it at some special program or occasion. The following 
stories are adapted to the pupils in this class: 

Cinderella. Heart of Oak, book 2 

Little Red Riding Hood. Fables and B'olk Stories — Scudder 

The Three Bears. Heart of Oak, book 2 

The Three Pigs. First Reader — Treadwell and Frees 

The Old Woman and Her Pig. Heart of Oak, book 1 

Henny Penny. Heart of Oak, book 1 

Little Half Chick. First Reader — Free and Treadwell 

Beauty and the Beast. Fables and Folk Stories — Scudder 

The Gingerbread Boy. How to Tell Stories — Bryant 

The Wind and the Sun. For the Children's Hour — Bailey and Lewis 

The Fox and the Grapes. Fables and Folk Stories — Scudder 

The Dog and His Shadow. Fables and Folk Stories — Scudder 

The Fo-J and the Crov/. Heart of Oak, Book 2 

The Ugly Duckling (Andersen) 

The Elves and the Shoemaker (Grimm). For the Children's Hour 

The Straw, the Coal and the Bean (Grimm). For the Children's 

Hour 
Goody Two Shoes. Heart of Oak, Book 2 
The Pig Brothers. How to Tell Stories — ^Bryant 
The Sailor Man. How to Tell Stories — Bryant 

It is suggested that each county superintendent with the aid of the 
supervising teacher and the instructors in the institution training 
country teachers add a supplementary list for his county. Each 



64 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

teacher should leave at the close of the year a record of the stories 
used for each class during the year, so that the teacher coming into 
the school the next year may know what work has been done. (See 
also pp. 221-222.) 

d. Dramatization of some of the stories told by the children. 
This exercise is especially valuable in cultivating naturalness of ex- 
pression. It is also helpful in getting the diffident to take part in 
the exercise. The teacher should as far as possible, train the children 
to take the initiative in this matter and suggest "how this story can 
be acted out". The stories for dramatization should not be long and 
it may be possible in some cases to divide the story into parts 
and dramatize the part that lends itself most easily to dramatiza- 
tion. 

e. Study of poems, committing them to memory and reciting 
them on some special occasion. See list of poems given for the 
first two years in "Selections for Study and Memorizing", (or any 
other collection found in the school). It is recommended that the 
school secure a copy of this volume if it is not in the school library. 

f. Enlargement of the children's vocabularies with an increas- 
ing power to use words with understanding and precision. In 
each of the four language exercises given above there should be 
a constant effort to add new words and phrases to the child's lan- 
guage stock. Every new word learned adds to the child's thought 
power as well as to his power of expression. See suggestions given 
on p. 65-67. 

g. Complete statements. As early as possible the children 
should be trained to speak in complete statements when telling 
stories or relating incidents, and in any oral work when complete 
sentences should be used. When the teacher desires a child to 
answer in a complete statement the question should be so framed 
that a phrase or a clause will not be a reply to the question. It 
is a mistake, however, to demand a complete statement when the 
occasion does not require it. 

2. Written work 

a. Tracing. The pupils should observe the teacher while she 
writes on the board in large round script words that they have 
learned in their lessons. They trace "in the air" the words the 
teacher has written, then copy on the board the words they have 
traced. When work on paper begins the children should write 
in large characters. The teacher should try to implant correct 
images of the letters and words in the minds of the children. Care 
should be taken in these early exercises to see that the children 
le^irn the arm movement and not the finger movement in writing. 

b. Copying from the board sentences used in the reading les- 
sons. 

c. Copying sentences composed by the children and written 
on the blackboard by the teacher. 



LANGUAGE 65 

d. Teach the use of capitals at the beginning and periods at 
the end of sentences, incidentally in connection with the foregoing 
work. 

The above work will very likely be done in connection with their 
reading work and the beginners will be in a group by themselves. 
When the teacher desires to dp special written work with the ad- 
vanced pupils in the primary language class, the beginners may be 
given seat work,, 

e. Dictation work may be introduced by the "look and write" 
method. The teacher shows the word or short sentence, then has 
the children write it from their mental picture. 

f. Writing from dictation easy statements after the children 
know the spelling of the words used. Introduce contractions and 
abbreviations as they are mastered just as new words are intro- 
duced but do not bring in forms not met with in their reading 
material. 

g. Call attention to the uses of capital letters in their reading 
lessons and have the children apply this knowledge in sentences 
written from dictation. These uses will probably include the fol- 
lowing: 

(1) The first word of a sentence. 

(2) Names of persons, places, days of the week and months of 

the year. 

(3) The words I and O. 

(4) The first word of a line of poetry. 

h. Teach punctuation marks that pupils have occasion to use 
in their dictation work. 

i. Children may be helped in writing from dictation lines of 
poetry by placing on the board forms like the following, showing 
arrangement of lines and punctuation marks they have not learned 
the use for: 



j. Compose and write simple sentences on some of the work 
done in school, or on some personal observation or experience of 
the children in school or at home. 

k. Composite stories, i. e., reproduction of short stories for 
which pupils contribute sentences. The sentences should be writ- 
ten on the board and worked over by teacher and pupils together. 
The revised and improved sentences should be read by the pupils 
and then copied by them on paper. 

The work indicated in j and k should be kept very simple and 
should not be done more than once or twice a week. Be sure that 
sufficient oral work precedes this written work. 

5— S. M, 



66 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

3. Lessons on the mechanics of language 

Give exercises to teach the following: 

a. Use of a and an. Have pupils read and speak sentences 
like the following: The wind has blown an apple to the ground. 
Little Boy Blue has an orange. May I have an acorn? There is 
an egg in the robin's nest. Hiawatha had a bow and an arrow. 

b. Use of is and are; ivas and were. The boy is here. The 
boys are here. There is a man in the road. There are three men 
in the road. There was a fire last night. There were two fires 
last night. There were no bones in Mother Hubbard's cupboard. 
There were three kittens with soiled mittens. 

c. The correct forms of pronouns after is, are was and ivere. 

Conversation lessons should be arranged between pupil and class- 
mates or teacher, calling for the correct use of these forms: 

Is that you, John? Yes, it is I. 

An excellent way to drill the children in the use of these ex- 
pressions is through some games in which children are required to 
use these forms in their questions or answers. The correction of 
errors through play exercises and games is an effective way of 
breaking up bad language habits because the correct forms almost 
unconsciously work themselves into the vocabularies of the chil- 
dren, thus replacing the incorrect forms. This is especially true 
if the children are young. A book containing suggestive games 
for the correction of errors is "Language through Plays and Games", 
by Deming, published by the Berkley-Cardy Co., Chicago. 

d. The correct use of may and can. Discuss with the children 
the meaning of these two words. The substitution of can for may 
is the only possible error and this can be corrected easily by calling 
the children's attention to the error w^hen they make it. 

e. The correct use of saiv, seen, did and done. The verbs see 
and do are used much by children and it is important that the cor- 
rect forms should be learned early. The amount of practice that 
is needed depends upon the extent to which children err in the use 
of these forms. Games may be used for drill work. Ordinary 
class conversation in which children answer questions like, "What 
did you see?" "What have you done to-day?" etc., can be car- 
ried on for a few minutes every day. Put life into these drills. 
Conduct them as you would exercises in mental arithmetic. 

f. The use of am. not, is not, etc. for aint. The use of the form 
aint is common among children and definite plans should be made 
early to eradicate it from the children's vocabularies. Have chil- 
dren give numerous sentences beginning with I am not, It is not, She 
is not. They are not, Are they not, Is he not, etc. Using the exercise 
suggested in e. above spend a few minutes of the language period 
asking questions like the following: Are you cold? Are you tired? 
Is he going? To these the children reply: No, I am not cold, etc. 
It is difficult to designate definitely just what errors should be 
corrected the first two years of school and which ones should be 
left for later years. It may be that others should be included in 



LANGUAGE 67 

the above list. Teachers should use every opportunity to have 
children form correct language habits early. The above expres- 
sions should be drilled upon thoroughly so that when the children 
finish the work outlined for the first two years they will use the 
•correct expressions just as easily as they give the sums in the 
forty-five combinations in arithmetic. 

It is a good practice to keep before the pupils in a conspicuous 
place in the room the correct language forms on which special 
work is being done: 



I saw 


I am not 


He is not 


May I 



Too great stress cannot be laid upon the importance of drills 
in the mechanics of language. Besides, the work can be exceed- 
ingly interesting and it is possible to develop as much enthusiasm 
over it as over the work in arithmetic. 

Third and Fourth Years 

In the country school the pupils in the second language group 
will usually include the children who are in the third and fourth 
years. In general the work done by this class is a continuation of 
what was done in the preceding class. Promotion should come 
with ability to use language. Pupils should be made to feel that 
in each class there is a definite amount of work to be done — a cer- 
tain degree of ability to be attained. Call attention of the pupils 
themselves to the progress they are making. Mention from time 
to time definite things they have accomplished. Have the pupils 
note that now every member can get up before the class and tell a 
story well without any help, while a month ago he thought it was 
impossible. Especially call the attention of the class to the prog- 
ress made in the elimination of errors. Now no one in the class 
uses aint while last fall every one used it. Children become en- 
thusiastic when they know they are making definite progress. 
With the right spirit permeating the language work great progress 
can be made and the results will be noticeable in every school 
subject. 

The character of the work that can be done depends much upon 
the language training the children have had outside of school and 
the amount of reading they are doing in and out of school. With 
some classes much more drill is necessary than with others. Teach- 
ers should not advance the pupils faster than they can do the work 
well. Mastery gives pleasure. 

1. Oral work 

a. Conversations about their observations and personal expe- 
riences continued. Material for these conversations will be ob- 
tained chiefly from the work in geography and nature study. There 



68 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

is no special class in igeography for the pupils in this group but 
the work outlined for the fourth year in geography is to be done 
in the language class. It may be necessary in some of the work to 
section the class, giving the younger pupils seat work while those 
who are more advanced take up phases of the geography work 
that may be too difficult for the younger ones. 

The conversational exercises now should develop into the regu- 
lar recitation in which the children are taught in an elementary 
way to talk on topics. This work of course must still be very 
simple and the freedom that characterizes the conversational exer- 
cise should not be abandoned. Make use of the suggestive mate- 
rial given in the language books. 

Much excellent material for this class is found in the outline in 
{Bird and fourth year geography. 

b. Picture study continued. Remember that while pictures 
are used for conversational exercises, the great purpose should be 
to instill into the minds of the children a love for the pictures 
themselves and to give them a desire to know more about them. 
The picture study in the language class should lead to greater in- 
terest in pictures used in readers and other textbooks, library 
books, etc. (See also p. 23.) 

The following pictures are suggested for study in this class: 

(1) Fall 

Don Balthazar Carlos Velasquez 

The little nurse Von Bremen 

Shoeing- the horse Landseer 

Pilgrims going to church Boughton 

Departure of the Mayflower Bayes 

Landing of the Pilgrims Rothermel 

The gleaners Millet 

Melon eaters Murillo 

Caritas Thayer 

(2) Winter 

Christmas chimes Blashfield 

The sheep Millet 

Two mothers and their families Gardner 

Washington crossing the Delaware Leutze 

(3) Spring- 

The strawberry girl Reynolds 

Who'll buy a rabbit? Von Bremen 

The village blacksmith Taylor 

Alice Chase 

Young sculptor Angelo 

c. Story telling continued. Have pupils review the stories 
learned in the primary class, especially those that have a bearing 
upon history, such as The Pilgrims, Washington, Lincoln, etc. The 
pupils in this group do not have a separate history class but the 
work Qutlined for them in the history course should be used as 
material for the regular language class. 



LANGUAGE 69 

As the pupils gain in power of thought and expression longer 
stories may be used and outlines worked out with the pupils to aid 
them in getting the proper sequence. The following list of stories 
is appropriate for this group, and it is suggested that each county 
superintendent with the aid of the teachers in the training insti- 
tution and the supervising teacher supplement the list for his 
county: 

Androclus and the Lion. Fifty Stories — Baldwin 
Why the Sea is Salt. How to Tell Stories — Bryant 
Snow White and Rose Red (Grimm.) German Household Tales 
Little One Eye, Two Eyes, Three Eyes (Grimm). First Reader 
The Bremen Town Musicians. First Reader— Free and Treadwell 
The Bell of Atri. Fifty Famous Stories — Baldwin 
The Legend of St. Christopher. For the Children's Hour — Bailey 
Epaminodas. Stories to Tell to Children — Bryant. 
Little Daylight. How to Tell Stories — Bryant. 

Country Mouse and City Mouse. Fables and Folk Stories — Scudder 
Three Billy Goats Gruff. Primer — Free and Treadwell 
Billy Beg and his Bull. How to Tell Stories — Bryant 
The Elephant Child. • Just So Stories — -Kipling 
Aladdin. Arabian Nights 
Sinbad the Sailor. Arabian Nights 
The Armor of Achilles. Achilles and Hector — Gale 
The Wooden Horse. Achilles and Hector — Gale 
Ulysses and the Bag of Winds. Adventures of Ulysses — Lamb 
Ulysses and Polyphemus — Adventures of Ulysses — Lamb 
Arachne and the Weaver. Old Greek Stories — Baldwin. 
Baucis and Philemon. The Children's Hour — Bailey 
Webster and the Woodchuck. Fifty Famous Stories — Baldwin 
Margaret of New Orleans. How to Tell Stories — Bryant 
Alfred and the Cakes. Fifty Famous Stories — Baldwin 
The Little Hero of Haarlem. How to Tell Stories — Bryant 
The Constant Tin Soldier (Andersen). For the Children's Hour — 
Bailey 

In addition to the stories given above the following biographies 
should be taken up selecting the portions that are appropriate to 
children of this age: Columbus, John Smith, Miles Standish, 
Franklin, Washington, Lincoln. If time permits the stories of 
Joseph, Moses, and David may be taken up. The lives of all these 
men appeal to children of this age and a study of them lays a 
strong foundation for future history work. 

d. Poems studied, committed to memory, and some of them 
recited on special occasions. See ''Selections for Study and Mem- 
orizing," for suggestive list. 

e. Dramatization of stories and poems continued. 

f. Vocabulary work. In all the work of the school lay special 
stress upon having children become observant of words as they 
meet new ones. A few new words may be placed upon the board 
and kept there, the teacher and children introducing them into 
their conversation as a part of the language work. In this way 
the pupils may be made conscious of their growth in language and 
thought power. At the end of a month they may be asked to make 



70 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

a list of perhaps twenty words that they have consciously learned 
to use during the month. In the reading class and in their gen- 
eral reading of books in the library they should also be taught 
to notice apt words and forceful phrases. See the article on Vo- 
cabulary Work, p. 87. 

2. Written work. During the first two years and even in the 
third year the written composition work is almost a negligible 
quantity. The children are struggling to master the mechanical 
phases cf the work, especially the penmanship and the spelling. 
This work should not be hurried, as it is far more important to 
lay all possible stress upon the oral exercises. 

a. Joint composition. When the children have reproduced a 
short story well orally, or when they have taken part freely in dis- 
cussing an experience which all have shared, they are ready to 
dictate it to the teacher who acts as the secretary of the class. 
Often a sentence will not suit the class as a whole when it is firsi 
given, so two or three pupils may have to attempt giving it, before 
the pupil critics are satisfied. When the story is finished it is a 
joint product and, as such, pupils are proud of it. Let the pupils 
copy it and make the copy as perfect as the secretary made hers. 
This copying will fix the spelling and punctuation, will acquaint 
children with good sentence structure, and will make it possible 
for the children to write the story from memory a little later. 

b. Ijong compositions to be avoided. Pupils have little, 
trouble in reproducing short stories as wholes. It is not so easy 
to reproduce "The Three Bears" and "The Gingerbread Boy" in 
writing. No children in the primary class and probably not any 
in the intermediate classes should reproduce the whole of a story 
the telling of which takes five minutes of time. Instead hav^ them 
write what happened to "The Gingerbread Boy" after he saw the 
fox; or VN^rite "The Three Bears" as far as the incident of the dis- 
covery of the bowl of soup, etc. All the time we have in mind that 
some day the pupils are to write original compositions — only a few 
lines long at first — but accounts of their own experiences. This 
is perhaps the time to emphasize the great necessity of having the 
children able to do orally any piece of work before we ask them 
to write it. Ten year old children sitting with pens in hand won- 
dering what to write, have not been well prepared for the written 
work. 

Encourage freedom and originality in the work. Do not loorTc for 
long compositions. 

c. Apostrophe. Teach the use cf the apostrophe to show own- 
ership \then the name of the owner is in the singular number. 
Emphasize the fact that the apostrophe is not used in the posses- 
sive of any pronoun, such as its, yours, etc. Examine lessons in 
the reader to find illustrations for this use and have them copied. 

d. Dictation exercises should be continued to fix the use of 
capital letters, the punctuation marks learned, abbreviations and 



LANGUAGE 71 

contractions needed in their written vvork, and homonyms studied. 
Teach the proper division of words at the end of lines. Also call 
attention to margins and indentations. 

e. Writing from memory stanzas of poetry. Do not have chil- 
dren write a poem until they can recite it well. The poet's first 
word for every line must be also the first word the child writes 
at the beginning of a line. If the poet's first line has ten words 
in it and the child has room for only seven, he is allowed to write 
the remaining three on the line below but he must not begin the 
second line of the poem at the middle; it must stand as his third 
line. For a time a diagram like the one given on p. 45 may be 
helpful. 

f. Quotation marks. The use of quotation marks should hh 
taught in this class. Have children observe the use of quotation 
marks in their reading lessons, and copy sentences containing them. 
Then give them dictation work in which quotations occur. Some- 
times omit the marks in a blackboard assignment and see if the 
children can insert them. 

g. Letter writing should be begun in this class. In develop- 
ing the .subject first discuss the parts of a letter with the children 
and call attention to the form. Do this with models before the 
class. Then have the pupils copy letters just as they copy other 
written exercises. As a third step have them write letters from 
dictation. The mechanics of a letter should be drilled upon and 
mastered so thoroughly that children habitually use correct forms. 
Language books contain model letters. 

Much of the written work can be thrown into the letter form. 
Letters written by the pupils in this class should be short. 

3. Lessons in the mechanics of language 

a. Review the work done by the pupils while they were in the 
previous class. Give special drill and practice on forms that need 
attention. Dc not stop practice until the correct form is perma- 
nently fixed by habit. 

b. Homonyms. Teach spelling and use of the following hom- 
onyms: sail, sale; their, there; to, too, two; no, know; new, 
knew; week, weak; hear, here. Add others that children may need 
in their written work. In teaching homonyms do not teach the 
two forms at the same time. Teach one form and drill on it until 
it is fixed and later teach the other. 

c. Irregular verbs. Drill on the correct use of irregular verbs. 
The following forms are especially suggested, though there may be 
others that need attention; went, gone; flew, flown; threw, thrown: 
broke, broken; began, begun; drank, drunk; rang, rung; ran, run. 

There is no value in learning and giving the principal parts of 
verbs by themselves. It is only when, these parts are used intelli- 
gently in sentences that the habit of correct usage is formed. In 
the early work with the more common irregular verbs that give 



72 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

most trouble, the teacher should plan some such exercises as the 
following: 

Teacher. "John, yoii may run to the door." 

Pupil. "I am running to the door." (He runs to the door.) 

"I have run to the door." (While at the door.) 

"I ran to the door." (After leaving the door.) 

"It was I Who ran to the door." (i^fter reaching his place in the 
class.) 
Teacher. "Mary, ring the bell." 
Mary. "Miss Smith said: 'Ring the bell.' " 

"I shall ring the bell." 

"I am ringing the bell." 

"I rang the bell." 

"I have rung the bell." 

"It was I who rang the bell." 

Short snappy drills should be given daily on this or some other 
phase of language mechanics. Games are also valuable in fixing 
the correct forms. "Education by Plays and Games" (See Town- 
ship Library List) contains good suggestions. 
Teach correct use of learn and teach; lie and lay, sit and set. 

Here again drill exercises are needed to fix the correct uses. 
Exercises like the following may be given: 

Teacher. "John, lay the pencil on the desk." 
Pupil. "I shall lay the pencil on the desk." 

"I am laying the pencil on the desk." 

"I have laid the pencil on the desk." 

"I laid the pencil on the desk a moment ago." 

"The pencil is lying on the desk." 

"The pencil lies on the desk." 

"The pencil has been lying on the desk." 

"The pencil has lain on the desk since I laid it there." 

"The pencil lay on the desk when I came in." 

"I have seen it lying on the desk before." 

d. Common errors. If the children make the following errors 
in their conversation, teach the correct forms and drill upon them: 

(1) My father, lie went away, for, My father went away (fol- 

lowing a noun bj^ a pronoun). 

(2) Yous for 2/.0W. 

(3) Oncet for once. 

(4) Drownded for drowned. 

(5) Busted for hurst. 

(6) He don't for he doesn't. 

c. Singular and plural forms. Give pupils practice in using 
both singular and plural forms of nouns in sentences. Choose 
many in common use that form the plural irregularly. 

Fifth and Sixth Years 

The third group of pupils in the country school for special train- 
ing in language will usually be those who have attended school about 
five or six years. Constant review should be given on the language 



LANGUAGE 73 

work taken up in the earlier years until correct forms become ha- 
bitual, 

1. Oral work ' 

a. Conversation. Continue exercises that cultivate in children 
the power of conversation. Make much of the general exercise 
feature of the school work with pupils in this and the advanced 
classes. See the suggestions regarding general exercises in the in- 
troductory statements and in connection with civics, hygiene, and 
nature study. 

Make use of every opportunity to get children to take part in dis- 
cussions, and to do so intelligently. To be able to take part in a 
conversation is an accomplishment. 

It is quite noticeable in many schools that children are less free 
in their participation in school exercises when they get into the up- 
per classes. Several causes may contribute to this, one of which is 
that the work becomes more formal, thus stifling the spontaneity 
which characterized the early years. 

b. Pictures. Continue the study of pictures, remembering the 
suggestions given for the previous class. Such exercises furnish 
good material for conversation. 

The following pictures are suggested for this class: 

(1) Fall 

Plowing- Bonheur 

Alexander and Diog-enes Landseer 

The old shepherd's chief mourner Landseer 

(2) Winter 

Sir Galahad Watts 

Repose in Eg-ypt Van Dyck 

Angel heads Reynolds- 

The boy Lincoln Eastman Johnson 

(3) Spring 

The torn hat Sully 

Aurora Reni 

Vag-abond musicians Mazzini 

The windmill .• Ruysdael 

Signing of the Declaration of Independence. . . .Trumbull 

The haymaker Adan 

The spinner Maes 

c. Outlines. Train the children in making outlines when study- 
ing their lessons in the other branches and in using these outlines 
in mking topical recitations. It is well to have these outlines on 
the blackboard. This group of pupils has a separate class in geog- 
raphy and some of them in physiology and hygiene. 

d. Vocabulary work. Utilize the different subjects, especially 
reading, in building up the children's vocabularies. See p. 87. 

e. History stories and other stories. This group has no sep- 
arate history class. The work outlined in history is to be used as 
part of the material in the language class. Concerning these history 
stories Chas. McMurry in his "Handbook of Practice" says: 



74 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

"The oral treatment of these stories should be developed as a dis- 
tinct art. The rough adventure and realism of pioneer life, its 
hardships and heroism, should stand out plainly in vivid narrative 
and description. In history the real presentation largely takes the 
place of the object in natural science studies. * * * "As each 
topic is presented by the teacher, discussed and reproduced by the 
children, it should be distinctly phrasedj and placed as part of an 
outline on the board. This outline of the whole story, preserved in 
some permanent notebook form, becomes the basis for reproductions, 
comparisons, and final reviews." 

In addition to the history stories the following are also suggested 
as being appropriate for the pupils of this class: 

Pied Piper. How to Tell Stories — Bryant 

Old Pines and the Dryad. Fanciful tales — Stockson 

Merchant of Venice. Tales from Shakespeare — Lamb 

How Arthur Became King. King Arthur and his Knights — Radford 

Excalibur. King Arthur and his Knights — Radford 

How Thor got his Hammer. In the Days of Giants — Brown 

The Punishment of Loke. In the Days of Giants 

Robin Hood Aids a Knight in Distress. Some Merry Adventures of 

Robin Hood — Pyle 
Florence Nightingale. Girls Who Became Famous — Bolton 
The Story of King Midas. Wonder Book — Hawthorne 
Prometheus. Old Greek Stories — Baldwin 

f. Library reading. The reading of library books and report- 
ing on them should have a prominent place. 

g. Poems. Continue the work with poems. (See p. 91.) 

h. Literary society. The children in this class should take an 
active part in the literary society of the school if one is organized. 
The members should furnish parts of the program and they should 
also take part in the discussions and parliamentary practice. 

i. Forms of composition. Pupils should be given practice in 
the four different forms of oral composition — description, narration, 
exposition, and argumentation — though these terms, should not bo 
used with the children. Thus far the work has been chiefly narra- 
tive. The objects and scenes used for descriptions should be those 
within their range of observation and those in which they are inter- 
ested. When a pupil tells a class how to make a bird house, how to 
work a problem, how a game is played, or how corn is planted and 
cared for it is an exercise in exposition or explanation. If a class in 
its history work is to select six of the most important names from a 
list of twelve the discussion that results is likely to be of the per- 
suasive kind, each pupil giving arguments why certain names 
should go into this list. 

2. Written work. Written work should always be based upon 
oral work. Oral work should precede all written work. 

a. Short written compositions based on stories, on picture study, 
on experiences, or on work done in the other classes in school. The 
teacher should be satisfied with short compositions. 



LANGUAGE 75 

b. Letter-writing should be a prominent feature of the written 
work done by this class. Letters should as far as possible be writ- 
ten to real persons and sent through the mail. Discuss with the 
children incidents, and topics that would make interesting reading 
for the children's correspondents and consider with them also how 
these may be written in an interesting style. Give some attention 
to business letters. The folding of papers for insertion into envel- 
opes and the addressing of envelopes should not be overlooked. See 
p. 98. 

c. School journals and programs. Suggest short compositions, 
articles, news-items, etc., that the children may work up for the 
"school journal", the school literary society, or community program. 
For a community program care should be taken to choose topics of 
interest to people outside of school. 

d. Paragraphing. Study with the children the building of par- 
agraphs in their books. A study of good models is of special value. 
In teaching them to make outlines call attention to arrangement of 
topics. In all their written work, including letter writing, teach 
the children to outline the sub»|ect before they begin writing. This 
will help them to organize the material in a logical sequence. 

e. Pupils' own experiences. Pupils should be encouraged to 
write short articles on subjects suggested by themselves. Encour- 
age originality. Their own personal experiences and adventures are 
often good topics. 

f. Dictation. Continue work in dictation and include in the 
exercises possessives, homonyms, contractions, abbreviations, quota- 
tions, uses of punctuation marks and capital letters taught, and any 
other appropriate features pertaining to written language work. The 
plural possessives should also be introduced in this class. 

g. Writing from ihemory some of the stanzas from the poems 
that have been memorized. Compare the copy with the original for 
the purpose of correcting punctuation and spelling. Try to deter- 
mine the reason for the punctuation marks used providing the pupils 
have studied the particular uses illustrated in the poem. 

h. Booklets on the plan of those suggested for the previous 
class can be made in connection with their geography, history, hy- 
giene, or nature work. Each pupil in class might prepare a booklet 
on one of the historical characters suggested for special language 
work in this class. 

3. Lessons on the mechanics of language 

a. Review all exercises given on the mechanics of language in 
the previous classes. Give special drill wherever needed. 

b. Irregular verbs. Continue practice on the irregular verbs 
suggested in the previous class. (See p. 71.) Give special atten- 
tion to the verbs that give the most trouble; as, lie and lay, sit and 
set, etc. Make many sentences to illustrate and confirm the cori-ect 



76 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

uses of these verbs. The correct uses of the following verbs should 
be emphasized: let and leave, get and have, lend and horrow. 

c. Pronunciation. Drill on words, mispronounced by the chil- 
dren. Keep a few of these words in a conspicuous place in the 
schoolroom. Some of the mispronunciations are due to ignorance 
of the correct pronunciation while others are due to careless habits. 

The following are a few of the common words that usually need 
to be given attention: burst, grocery, quiet, pumpkin, catch, hand- 
kerchief, just, swept, chimney, surprise, grandma, raisin, geography, 
across, because, such, morning,' recess, address, which, this, get, 
creamery, instead, cranberry, often, grandpa, celery, everything, yes, 
(not yep). 

d. Adjectives. Correct use of tJvis and that with kind or sort. 
This kind (not these kind) of apples is delicious. 

Correct use of predicate adjectives: I feel bad. The rose smells 
sweet. The iron feels rough. The cake looks good. 

e. Adverbs. Correct use of adverbs: I like my work well. I 
am very glad to see you. I am. really sorry that I said so. She 
stitched much more quickly than I di,d. 

f. Pronouns. Correct use of a pronoun after a preposition: 
Between you and me, for him and me, with him and me, to you 
and me. 

g. Prepositions. Correct use of the following: between and 
among, in and into. 

Seventh and Eighth Years 

In the country school only one class can be formed from this 

group of pupils. There will be from 100 to 120 recitation periods 

•in grammar and the remainder should be given to oral and written 

composition. The grammar work should, as far as possible, be taken 

up the last year of the course. 

1. Oral work 

a. Outlines. The pupils are now having regular recitations in 
geography, civics, history and agriculture. In all these classes teach 
pupils to make outlines in studying their lessons and to use these 
outlines in presenting topics. In the recitations continue to work 
for correct expressios. 

b. School library. Training the children in the use of the 
school library should be continued. See Lessons on the Use of the 
School Library. 

c. Book reports. Oral reports on books or parts of books read 
should be made in the classes or before the whole school. Always 
try to make this work attractive to the pupils so that they will want 
to do it. By guiding the pupils in their reading and helping them 
make brief outlines as they read this work' can be made excellent 
language training both in thought getting and in thought expression. 



LANGUAGE 77 

These book reports may also be given in tlie literary society or at 
community gatherings, thus adding an incentive for good work. 

d. Vocabulary. Definite work should be done in enlarging the 
children's vocabularies. In civics, geography, history, arithmetic, 
agriculture, grammar and reading be sure that new terms are un- 
derstood. Every word added to the pupils' vocabularies are made 
more definite and precise adds to their thought powers as well as 
to their powers of expression. Illustrations: jury, speaker (of as- 
sembly), policy (insurance), square rod, cacao, eclipse, trade winds, 
lock (canal), tuber, blight, predicate adjective. The children's vo- 
cabularies are enlarged greatly in their general reading. Sugges- 
tions for the study of synonyms are given in the discussion on "Vo- 
cabulary W^ork" on p. 88, and also in "Lessons on the Use of the 
School Library", p. 34. The latter publication also contains sugges- 
tions for word study. See p. 44—46. 

e. Poems. Definite study of some poems unless these are 
studied in the reading class. It is suggested that some of the poems 
selected should correlate with the history work (My captain, O My 
Captain), or show forth the beauties of nature (The Fringed Gen- 
tian.) Many of these should be memorized. See "Selections for 
Study and Memorizing' or some other collections of poetry in the 
school library. 

f. Study of pictures. The following list is suggestive 

(1) Fall 

The Augelus Millet 

Sheep — Autumn Mauve 

The horse fair Bonheur 

Joan of Arc Le Page 

John Alden and Priscilla Boughton 

Return to the farm Troyon 

(2) Winter 

Christ and the doctors Hoffman 

Frieze of the prophets Sargent 

Sistine Madonna Raphael 

Evolution of the book Alexander 

Washington at Trenton , Faed 

(3) Spring 

The sower Millet 

Change of pasture ". Bonheur 

Song of the lark Breton 

The shepherdess Millet 

(4) Sculpture 

Appeal to the Great Spirit ' Dallin 

Abraham Lincoln St. Gaudens 

The Shaw Memorial St. Gaudens 

Nathan Hale Mac Monnies 

The minute man r French 

g. Editing a school paper which may be read at the meetings 
of the literary society. 



78 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

h. A literary society affords a great opportunity for both oral 
and written language work, as well as for practice in speaking and 
mastering the rudiments of parliamentary practice. 

1. Short talks. Have the pupils prepare short talks to give 
before the class, or the school. Encourage them to select subjects 
of general interest."^ Current events, nature study, agriculture, his- 
tory, and geography furnish excellent material for these talks. 

2. Written work 

a. Grading. If pupils are found to be classified too high in 
their language work, if they are found to be weak in the fundamen- 
tals of the subject, exercises should be given them of a more element- 
ary nature than those outlined here. It often happens, that some 
children because of irregular attendance or poor teaching in the 
lower classes are very weak in their language work when they get 
to the age when they should be doing advanced work. In such cases 
the teacher should determine by simple tests what the children are 
able to do and build upon the ability they possess. Dictation work 
should be continued and any work suggested for the lower classes 
will give needed practice on forms that should be mastered. 

b. The written work for this class should include the following: 

(1) Have pupils write from outlines made by them with the 
help of the teacher. Have pupils make outlines of their own from 
which to write. 

(2) In making outlines for and with the pupils, the teacher 
should remember that each topic or division of the outline needs a 
separate paragraph for its expression. 

(3) Pupils should be led to examine selections in their read- 
ing to find the subjects of the paragraph. 

(4) Encourage the children to carry on correspondence with 
relatives and friends. In suggesting topics for correspondence re- 
member the children's interests. 

(5) If the business practice suggested in the arithmetic out- 
line is taken up, give special attention to the language feature of all 
business papers. At any rate be sure that the pupils master the es- 
sentials of business correpondence. 

(6) Emphasize neatness and good penmanship in all written 
work. Do not call for long compositions. Quality, not quantity 
should be the teacher's motto in the written exercises. Better two 
paragraphs well written than ten paragraphs full of errors. 

3. Lesson on the mechanics of language. This work is given in 
connection with the study of grammar. 

Grammar 

1. Dislike for grammar. The reasons why many pupils, espe- 
cially boys, dislike grammar are perhaps the following: 

a. The study of grammar is begun too early in the course. 

b. The teachers go too deep into the subject. 



LANGUAGE 79 

c. The textbooks are often too difficult. 

d. Pupils are advanced too fast. In grammar as in arithmetic 
much drill work is necessary and the material needs to be graded to 
suit the child's progress. 

e. Pupils see no practical value in' the study. 

2. When the study of graminar should begin. No pupil should 
take up the study of grammar unless he has a reasonable command 
of language. It is far more profitable for him to spend his time in 
gaining fluency of expression than in trying to learn grammatical 
constructions which are almost certain to be beyond his comprehen- 
sion. 

The formal study of grammar should not be taken up until pupils 
reach the eighth grade except that pupils in the country school doing 
work in the seventh grade may be placed in the grammar class with 
the eighth grade pupils. The incidental study of such problems of 
grammar as have a direct bearing on the correction of common errors 
of speech may be taken up in the lower grades but when such parts 
are taken up they should be discussed purely from the language stand- 
point. 

Charters in his book, "Teaching the Common Branches", p. 83, 
makes the following statement regarding the time when grammar 
should be taught: "It is possible for a subject to be started before 
pupils are old enough to understand it; and if it is started then, they 
never get it straightened out in their minds. It is always hazy and 
misty. But, if it is left until the pupils can understand it, they will 
learn it easily and will get a clear grasp of it. 

"It is undoubtedly better to begin grammar in the seventh grade 
than earlier. If, in the language books, lessons in grammar are 
given for the grades lower than the seventh, they should be omitted. 
Attention to them before the seventh grade is not only a waste of 
time, but a positive damage to pupils; and in every case the gram- 
matical items should be blue-penciled and omitted." 

3. Suggestions for eighth grade work. In the eighth grade, no 
topics should be taken up beyond those outlined in this course. The 
pupils should be given much practice in the building of sentences 
illustrating the various constructions. Emphasis should be laid upon 
having these sentences contain information from the various school 
studies. By this method of procedure the study of grammar gives 
excellent practice in sentence structure and it becomes a valuable 
feature of composition work. The children can also be given much 
training in the proper arrangement of modifiers and in the selection 
of words. 

4. Sources of illustrative sentences.' Sentences used in every 
day speech are valuable for grammar study but some of them are too 
difficult for analysis in the elementary school. Pupils can be trained 
in their grammar study to give attention to common expressions and 
in this way they get valuable practice in applying the rules of gram- 



80 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

mar and in testing their own speech by these rules. In the words of 
Klapper, "The teaching of grammar is justified only when children 
learn to use it for purposes of self-criticism and correction". (The 
Teaching of English, p. 224.) 

It is a good practice to encourage children to bring into the gram- 
mar exercise, for illustrative purposes, well-known selections from 
literature. On the other hand, it is a tad practice to force the study 
of literary selections in the grammar class. 

In the elementary school the emphasis in grammar study should be 
placed upon comparatively easy sentences. Constructions too diffi- 
cult or too complex should not be taken up for discussion. If the 
work is kept within the ability and comprehension of the pupils and 
made interesting so that the children can see the value of the study, 
they will have a tendency to like the subject. 

5. Division of time between grammar and composition. In the 

eighth grade about three recitation periods a week may be given to 
grammar. The remaining two should be given to oral language and 
composition. Much attention should be given in the other classes 
(such as history) to training the pupils in reciting by topics. 

6. Diagraming, if properly handled, is of considerable aid to 
pupils in seeing the relation of the parts of the sentence. It is, how- 
ever, not an end in itself and must be used simply as a means to help 
the children understand the relation of the elements. It is especially 
valuable for blackboard drill purposes and for seat work. By its use 
a teacher can tell at a glance whether or not pupils are able to recog- 
nize certain constructions. 

7. Textbooks. Although the outline given in this grammar 
course should be followed quite closely and the pupils be given much 
practice in sentence construction, yet a textbook should be used to 
some extent. After the pupils have been taught a new construction 
and have given their own sentences, the list in the book may be used 
for further study and drill. Sentences that are too difficult or com- 
plex should be omitted. Definitions that are taught should, after 
they have been developed, be taken from the textbook. 

8. Dictionary. While the children are studying grammar they 
should be given special work in the use of the dictionary. Teach the 
lessons assigned to the Grammar and Language Class at the bottom 
of page 19, Lessons on the Use of the School Library. 

9. Suggestive outline for the teaching of grammar 

a. Begin the study by giving many examples of two-word sen- 
tences (the unmodified subject and the unmodified predicate): Cork 
floats. Lead sinks. You study. We came. He comes. Orioles 
sang. Lee surrendered. Washington retreated. Japan won. 

Teach subject and predicate. 

Have pupils make a list of sentences like the above, stating facts 
from history, geography and their own observations. This lesson, 



LANGUAGE 81 

though apparently easy, will impress upon them that it requires con- 
siderable thinking to make two-word statements that are true. If 
they could but use a third word they would be greatly helped. 
From the above exercises bring out the need of modifiers. 

b. In the two-word sentences which word is the more important? 
Lead children to see that we do have sentences with but one word: 
Run! Play! Look! Stand! Fire! (Commands). What are the' 
subjects in these sentences? ("You" understood). Have children 
give other examples. 

Teach the verb, using the sentences they have written. In the 
study of grammar it is well to have each pupil procure a notebook 
into which he may write his sentences and such other work as the 
teacher may direct. 

"Verb" is from the Latin word verbum which means the word. 
Impress upon the class early that the verb is the most important 
word in the sentence. 

c. Teach the noun from the sentences the pupils have brought 
in. Which nouns represent one thing? Which represent more than 
one? Teach singular and plural number. 

d. Teach the pronoun from the sentences studied. Add other 
sentences. Teach singular and plural forms of pronouns introduced. 
Have pupils note how the form of the verb sometimes changes with 
the form of the pronoun. 

(Do not hasten this work unduly. The success of the work in 
grammar depends largely upon the way the first lessons are taught. 
Give children lists of nouns with which to construct sentences; then 
give lists of verbs.) 

e. Introduce verb phrases by having children change the verbs 
in the sentences they have: Crows are flying. I am reading. Are 
you studying? We are coming. Bats do fly. Cornwallis did sur- 
render. 

Can all the verbs be changed in this manner? Is the meaning 
exactly the same in the changed expressions? 
Have the children construct other sentences with verb phrases. 

f. Teach the adjective by placing before the children sentences 
like the following: The little bird sings. An owl hoots. A horse 
neighs. The big dog barks. The frog croaks. 

Note the changes that can be made in the meaning of the state- 
ments if we introduce the, a, and an. 

Have pupils construct sentences containing adjectives. Have them 
note whether or not they are appropriate. Note the use of adjectives 
in some reading selection. Have pupils supply adjectives in blank 
forms as: soldiers fled. pumpkin grew. 

Encourage the children to exercise judgment in the choice of ad- 
jectives and to note the choice of adjectives in their general reading: 
The nimble squirrel; an arduous task; the topmost twig. 

g. Introduce sentences containing adverbs: The birds are flying 
swiftly. We are coming soon. She reads well. Franklin spoke 
wisely. The band played sweetly and softly. 



II 

82 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

Have the children bring to class sentences containing adverbs. 
These sentences may also contain adjectives. In all the grammar 
work keep up practice on old forms as new forms are being taken up. 

After the pupils have gained facility in working with adverbs 
that are placed in their regular order, introduce the inverted order 
as shown in sentences like the following: Down fell the acorn. 
Away flew the bird. Below lay the quijt valley. Never again did 
he return. Loudly pealed the bells. Widely read were his books. 
Quietly Washington retreated. 

Here is an interesting lesson. Let the pupils bring in many sen- 
tences of this kind. Encourage originality. When the pupils learn 
to use the inverted order, their compositions will improve. Encour- 
age them to apply what they learn in their grammar class in all 
their composition work. 

By means of the inverted order emphasis may be placed upon dif- 
ferent ideas and shades of meaning may be brought out. 

Adverbs are also used to modify adjectives: A very interesting 
problem. An exceedingly difficult task. An unusually strong man. 
These phrases need not be put in sentences. 

Adverbs are also used to modify other adverbs: The hepatica 
blooms very early. The boys played exceedingly well. (Note: Give 
frequent reviews throughout the course.) 

h. Suggestions for the uses of adjectives and adverbs: 

(1) Do not use them for those in sentences like the follow- 
ing: "Those boys are coming here." 

(2) Use discretion in selecting adjectives and adverbs. Many 
people use too much such words as awful, awfully, nice, splendid, 
lovely, tc. 

i. Introduce sentences showing the subject modified by a preposi- 
tional adjective phrase: The boys in the boat are singing. The man 
by the river is whistling. The squirrel on the fence is chattering. 
The army of the British retreated. First came the children of the 
village. 

The prepositional phrase consists of a preposition with its object. 
Like what part of speech are the above phrases used? 

Give practice in constructing sentences with adjective phrases, 
j. Introduce sentences containing prepositional adverdial phrases. 
The prodigal son returned to his home. The bird is singing in the 
treetop. 

After some practice on sentences written in the regular order take 
up the inverted order: Near the river bank stands a farm house. 
Under the spreading chestnut tree the village smithy stands. Down 
the valley flowed the stream. 

Considerable time may profitably be spent on this phase of the 
work. Develop in the children a taste for good sentence structure 
and variety. 

k. In sentences like the following have the pupils note the form 
of the pronouns: He came with me. I came with him. We spoke to 



LANGUAGE 83 

them. They laughed at us. My book is here. Teach the different 
forms of the pronouns, giving the terms nominative, possessive, and 
objective. Lead the pupils to see that the odjective form is the one 
always used after a preposition. Give practice on forms like the 
following: They came to him and me. This work is for you and me. 
1. Give sentences having compound subjects. The boys and girls 
are playing. The British and the French were fighting. Grant and 
Lee met. Finally came the slave and his master. You and I are 
here. 

Let the members of the class construct additional sentences and 
copy them in their books after they have been approved. 

Teach the conjunction. Do not teach the different classes of con- 
junctions. 

c. Compound predicate. The man spoke hastily and departed. 
We left yesterday and returned to-day. They advanced quickly and 
then retreated. 

n. Introduce sentences illustrating the use of the predicate ad- 
jective: The book is interesting. The soil is moist. Most birds are 
beneficial. Washington was angry. The president was sad. 

In the above sentences the adjectives are a part of the predicate 
and are therefore called predicate adjectives. They modify the sub- 
ject. 

After drill and correction of sentences brought by pupils introduce 
the inverted order and the interrogative form. Give much practice. 
Bright) was the sun. Silent was the night. Wet was the season. 
Cold would the winter be. Is the location good? Was his record 
enviable? Was his statement correct? Never was he tardy. 

o. The predicate noun: Washington was president. Black Hawk 
was an Indian chief. Hamilton was a financier. Is air a fluid? Was 
Jefferson an educated man? A hero is he! 

This is a good exercise for training pupils' judgment. 

p. Predicate pronoun: This is I. Is this he? Who are we? Is 
that she? It is I. It is we. It is they. 'Tis I. 'Twas he. 

q. Teach the different forms of the personal pronoun by using 
them in sentences. Have the pupils construct additional sentences. 
I, my, me; you, your; he, his, him; she, her, her; it, its; we, our, 
us; -they, their, them. 

Note that the subject or nominative forms as I, you, he, she, it, 
we, they. 

The possessive forms are my, your, his, her, its, our, their. 

The objective forms are me, him, her, it, you, them. 

Develop the above three statements through the study of sen- 
tences. Then arrange the forms as follows: 

Singular Plural 

Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom, Poiss. Obj. 

First person I my me we our us 

Slecond person you your you ye 

thou thy thee you your you 

he his him 

Third person she her her they their them 

It its it 



84 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

Give much practice in constructing easy sentences illustrating each 
of the above forms, 
r. Rules: 

(1) When a pronoun is used as sudject or as predicate pronoun 
it takes the nominative form. 

It is I. It is they. He and I were there. It was not I; it was he. 

(2) The pronoun you when it is used as a subject always 
takes a plural verb. 

You are a stranger. Were you one of his friends? 

s. The direct o1)ject: Grant defeated Lee. Did you strike me? 
We took our friends to the city. The boys played ball. I know my 
lesson. Have you written your sentences? When do we play mar- 
bles? David slew Goliath. 

Have the pupils write many sentences illustrating this construc- 
tion. Encourage variety and call attention to word order: These 
men did I see yesterday. So we sang the chorus from Atlanta to 
the sea. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord. 
(Note peculiar use of mine.) 

Teach transitive and intransitive verbs in connection with these 
sentences. Change the verbs to the passive form. 

t. The indirect ohject: He gave me a book. We found him a 
pencil. She fetched us some water. The beggar asked the king a 
question. The governor gave Washington a letter. A gift I have 
sent him. That experience taught me a lesson, 
u. Rules: 

(1) When a pronoun is used as the object of a verb or of a 
preposition it takes the objective form. Review sentences in k above. 
Give much practice on sentences like these. 

(2) The possessive forms and not the objective should be 
used as adjective modifiers. My coat (not me coat) is torn. Why 
should those be used in h? The man's being a king never occurred 
to us. 

V. Who, whose, whom: Who are you? Whom did you send? To 
whom did you speak? Whose book is this? Whom do you work for? 

Have pupils construct additional questions using these words. 

Who is the nominative form, lohose the possessive and lohom the 
objective. When should each be used? 

The pupils have now had all the English words in which the ob- 
jective forms differ from the nominative. Give drill to fix the forms. 

Nominatives: I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they, who (8). 

Objectives: me, us, thee, him, her, them, whom (7). 

Nouns do not have special forms for the objective cases. Hence 
do not teach "case." 

w. Nouns and pronouns in apposition. 

Columbus, the discoverer of America, was born in Genoa. Fulton, 
the inventor of the steamboat, was ridiculed. There they found Ba- 
sil, the blacksmith. In the infinite meadows of heaven blossomed the 
lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of the angels. 



LANGUAGE 85 

X. Possessives : Napoleon's time had come. Boys' coats for sale 
here. Millionaires' homes are not always happy. 

Give the pupils much practice in constructing and in writing from 
dictation, sentences containing possessives. Do not spend time on 
expressions that are never used. 

y. Nouns of address: Come here, John. Send him some money, 
Philip. Mary< "where are you? Come, Agnes, and see the beautiful 
scene. For yodr sake, John, I shall come again. Bring the good old 
bugle boys, we'll sing another song. 

A noun of address should be set off from the rest of the sentence 
by a comma. 

z. Position and meaning of modifiers: Considerable practice 
has been given in constructing sentences having the inverted order. 
Call attention to the fact that the position of the modifier determines 
the thought. Sometimes a wrong impression is conveyed because 
the modifier is improperly placed. 

aa. Correct use of the negative. Give the pupils practice in con- 
structing sentences to illustrate the following rule: 

Do not use two negatives so that one contradicts the other. 
I have no book. I haven't any book. No one can help you. 

bb. Prepositions. Use care in selecting prepositions. The boys 
ran into the house. He passed between the two. He walked among 
the people. Mine is different from yours. I agree with you. 

cc. Principal parts of verbs: Give sentences illustrating the 
"parts," present, past and perfect (or past) participle. Have pupils 
construct sentences. Make lists of principal parts of important ir- 
regular verbs such as do, did, done; go, went, gone; come, came, 
come: lie, lay, lain. 

Whenever the perfect participle is used an "auxiliary" or "help- 
ing" verb some form of "be" or "have," must be used with it. Have 
done, is gone, had come, has lain. Drill upon these forms as you 
would upon a process in arithmetic. 

With these principal parts and the auxiliary verbs a large variety 
of verb phrases can be made showing modifications of various kinds. 

I see, I saw, I have seen, I had seen, I shall see, I shall have seen. 

Develop the six tenses, giving the name and showing the meaning 
of each. 

dd. Adjective clauses: Gone are the days when my heart was 
young and gay. This is the house that Jack built. The man who 
came with us lives here. The bird that we saw was a chickadee. 

Have the pupils add to the list sentences of their own construction. 

Teach the meaning of complex sentences. 
ee. Relative pronouns. In the above list select the relative pro- 
nouns. Teach antecedent. For what word does the relative pronoun 
stand in each case? Give much practice in determining antecedents. 

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, person and 
number. (Explain what is meant by gender. Review person and 



86 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

number.) Every boy must learn his lesson. Each one of the boys 
saw his mistake. 

Give much practice on this rule. 

The pronoun who is used in speaking of persons only. The man 
whom you saw has arrived. 

ff. AdverHal clauses: When he comes, I shall ask him. We 
shall go where you lead. Since you like the book, yogj^may keep it. 
Although the task is difficult, I shall do it. 

Speak of when, since, etc., merely as connectives or conjunctions. 
gg. Noun clauses: The story was not true. That the prisoner 
escaped was not true. What he did with his money was a mystery 
to us. 

We did not believe his story. We did not believe that he had 
been robbed. We discovered that the rumor was false. "Can you 
understand the language?" said his father. 

His answer was short. His answer was that he could not come. 
The rumor was that the prisoner had escaped. 

The report that he had been hurt was not true. 

He was satisfied with his condition. He was satisfied with what 
he had. This was the substance of his talk. This was the substance 
of what he said. He sold the farm for a small sum. He sold the 
farm for what he could get. 

hh. Compound sentences: Saul has slain his thousands but Da- 
vid has slain his tens of thousands. I found Rome a city of brick 
but I have mad© it a city of marble. Have you found your book or 
must you buy another? 

ii. Summary of rules: 

(1) A verb must agree with its subject in person and number. 
Each of us has his faults. He doesn't like his work. Every one 

of the party is from our state. The North arid the South were re- 
united. He and I are going. 

(2) When a pronoun is used as subject or as predicate pro- 
noun it takes the nominative form. See r. 

(3) The pronoun you when used as a subject always takes a 
plural verb. See r, 

(4) A pronoun used as the object of a verb or the object of 
a preposition must have the objective form. See k. 

(5) Do not use them for those as a modifier of a noun. See h. 

(6) Use discretion in selecting adjectives and adverbs. See 
f, g, and h. 

(7) Use care in placing modifiers so that there may be no 
question as to the meaning of the sentence. See z. 

(8) Use care in the selection of prepositions. See bb. 

(9) Do not use two negatives so that on© contradicts the 
other. See aa. 

(10) A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, 
person and number. See ee. 



LANGUAGE • 87 

(11) The perfect participle of the verb should always be used 
with some form of the auxiliaries "be" and "have" and only with 
such auxiliaries. See cc. 

(12) In comparing two things or groups use the comparative 
form of the adjective; in comparing more than two, use the super- 
lative. 

He is the taller of the two. Henry is the oldest of the four broth- 
ers. 

III. SUGGESTIONS WITH REGARD TO PARTICULAR PHASES 

OF THE WORK 

1. Vocabulary work. The conversational exercises; the work with 
poems, pictures and stories; the oral compositions and the writing of 
original themes and letters will do something to enlarge the pupil's 
vocabulary whether the teacher works consciously for it or not. They 
will do much more if the teacher realizes the importance of vocab- 
ulary gain. Until she feels how invaluable vocabulary equipment is 
no teacher will give enough time to vocabulary work. "The slowness 
in learning to read on the part of many children is due largely to 
their narrow oral vocabularies The greatest literary and so- 
cial handicap of the average citizen is beyond doubt a narrow vocab- 
ulary doubtfully possessed." 

A teacher may shorten the time it might take for these words and 
expressions to become a part of the pupils language stock by tact- 
fully and perseveringly cultivating in the pupils their dormant inter- 
ests in the apt word and forceful expression in exercises especially 
designed for this purpose. It is no doubt true that the development 
of appreciative power is the best of aids in the development of ex- 
pressional power. So the teacher must spare no effort to arouse ap- 
preciation. She must give drills stressing vocabulary work: 

a. Literature as a source. In connection with every study, but 
especially with any piece of literature studied either in the reading 
or in the language classes, children should be on the lookout for 
these fitting words and phrases. Their language notebooks should 
contain pages on which these are listed. Here are a few to illus- 
trate: :, ,] , i , I ~ u^ n i 

unscrupulous ruler majestic sunset 

unfeigned joy tempestuous sky 
turbid current , lavish display 

sluggish water cheered lustily 

weary, wayworn wanderer resolutely skip 

arduous task sobbed spasmodically 

noteworthy achievements speak graciously 

obstreperous proceedings saluted gallantly 

irascible disposition respond cordially 

When the pupils are preparing for oral or written composition, en- 
courage them to consult these lists to see whether or not they can 
incorporate some of these phrases into their exercises. 



88 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

b. Study of synonyms. Another way to get children interested 
in vocabulary gain is to have a list of synonyms for the seventh and 
eighth grades. "Correspondence in meaning in synonyms gives free- 
dom and variety. Differences help one to exact choice of the fittest 
words to express shades of meaning." The following is a list of much 
abridged from one given in the Course of Study in the Elementary 
Schools of Decatur, 111.; 

abandon, deceive, forsake, leave, forget, 
beautiful, attractive, charming-, pretty, 
clever, capable, intelligent, talented, gifted, 
gather, assemble, collect, convene, 
healthy, sanitary, wholesome, 
implore, ask, beg, beseech, pray, petition, 
peculiar, singular, strange, queer, rare, 
politeness, courtesy refinement, 
awful, dreadful, horrible, frightful, 
persuade, allure, coax, entice, urge, 
colleague, ally, associate, partner. 

If pupils notice in what association these words are found and 
copy citations from good writers containing them, and if they also 
look them up in the dictionary and practice using them in oral and 
written sentences of their own, they will gradually get a feeling for 
the right words. Such phrases as the following illustrate the com- 
pany in which the synonyms of one much abused word are found: 
A funny story, a comical face, a clever joke, a jolly time, a witty 
chap. 

c. Definite words needed. If a child is to be kept from using 
for his words of praise only such hackneyed words as fine, lovely, 
splendid and nice, it will be because his teacher has suggested in- 
stead such expressions\ as a lucid explanation, a masterly game, a 
spirited march, a felicitous speech, a delicious pie, a refreshing spring 
of water. If he is to be kept from using only such words of dis- 
praise as awful and terrihle, it will be because his teacher has helped 
to equip him with such phrases as a serious mistake, a ludicrous 
blunder, uncivil manners, discourteous treatment. See Woolley's 
Handbook of Composition, Township Library List. 

d. Prevention of slang. If teachers get children interested In 
becoming skilled in the use of good, vivid descriptive words, we 
shall not often find them resorting to slang. Tell them that the 
person who uses slang reveals the poverty of his language stock. 
Get them acquainted with idiomatic English. 

e. Typical exercises. The following exercises are typical of 
much work that may be done. The work in each case should be first 
oral and then written. The lists should grow gradually and the pu- 
pil should be encouraged to go to books or friends or to listen closely 
to conversations that will help him to increase his lists: 

Write from ten to forty individual names under these class names: 
flowers, musical terms, tools fabrics, birds, games and sports, vehicles, 
precious stones, reptiles, etc. 



LANGUAGE 89 

Write from ten to forty words that are needed in the vocabulary of 
a dressmaker, carpenter, shoemaker, furniture dealer, farmer house- 
keeper, etc. 

Write from ten to forty descriptive words for eyes: forehead, form, 
manner, sky, horse, fire, trees, villain, a story, a person's voice, etc. 

f. Puzzles. Working tlie puzzles given in such magazines as the 
St. Nicholas introduces the children to many new words. 

See Everyday English by Jean Sherwood Rankin for many valuable 
suggestions in vocabulary work. 

2. Picture study 

a. Directing: taste. The child has an innate lovei of pictures — a 
heritage from ancestors who lived in the open and gazed upon the 
never ending pictures of earth and sea and sky. That pleasure in 
pictures is a taste that needs direction if it is to give life long satis- 
faction is demonstrated on all sides by the popularity of the "funny 
paper" with its vapid and sometimes coarse representations. Can 
we, while utilizing this taste of the children, study their craving for 
pictures and at the same time make it yield them a greater apprecia- 
tion of the choice things of life, — an appreciation of robust, whole- 
some humor rather than that which is coarse, an appreciation of the 
natural beauty that lies "all about us if we have the eyes to see", an 
appreciation of the splendid personal qualities that pictures frequently 
depict? We need to select pictures wisely and to present them sym- 
pathetically but delightfully. While it is advisable to introduce pupils 
to reproductions of master pieces, we need not confine our studies 
to these. There are many excellent pictures appearing from time 
to time in our better periodicals that are well worth study. 

b. The list given in this course is not to be considered an exclu- 
sive one, for the teacher who has a preference for certain good pic- 
tures not herein included, can, because of this appreciation, make 
them speak their message to the pupils, and it may be wise to sub- 
stitute her choice. She should certainly introduce the children to 
her best loved pictures, provided they are pictures which it has been 
found little children care for. However, if the schools of this state 
study the same pictures, it will be easier for teachers to prepare 
themselves to give language lessons that are really worth while. 
(See p. 42.) 

c. The classification of these pictures is not intended to be 
rigid. They have been grouped in four divisions to suggest the 
economy that is possible when classes are combined. It is sug- 
gested that the teacher may occasionally combine more grades than 
are here indicated for class study. It is not expected that thfej 
younger children will get as much as the older children from such 
an exercise. It is enough if their interest is held and thought 
stimulated. The requirements made of the different grades should 
be correspondingly different. 

d. Textbooks. The treatment of picture study in our best 
language textbooks is very suggestive. The detailed plan given for 



90 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

studying any one particular picture may not be as well suited to 
the class as a modification that the teacher can arrange. The most 
helpful preparation that the teacher can make will be to outline 
the story that the picture suggests, or to write a description of the 
scene depicted. This will show her the diflEiculties that may con- 
front the pupils and will be a means of helping her to see more 
in the picture than can be seen from a superficial study of it. At 
times the teacher should say to her pupils, "This is what the pic- 
ture tells me," and then give a full version of her interpretation. 
After pupils have gained some power in reading pictures, they may 
be required to describe them without first answering questions 
asked by the teacher. The picture may generally be thought of as 
the climax. The important problem for the children is to bring 
out that which immediately preceded or followed the climax. 

e. A general outline which will be helpful is the follov/ing: 

(1) What does the picture as a whole represent? 

(2) What is the relation of various characters to one an- 
other? What has happened? What will happen? (To little chil- 
dren the action depicted is the most important feature.) 

(3) Interesting incidents connected with the artist's paint- 
ing of the picture if any are known or may easily be imagined from 
the facts of his biography. This is all of the artist's life that 
should be considered. 

(4) Means employed by the artist to convey thought, arouse 
feeling, or suggest the story: 

(a) Location: 

Any particular period of history, 

Time of year. 

Day or night, 

Any particular country. 

(b) Grouping: 

Principal and subordinate characters or objects. 
Relative importance of their positions and what em- 
phasizes these. 
What characters or objects could be left out? How 
would these change the picture? 

For Intermediate and Upper Classes. 

(c) Beauty: 

What are the colors in the original picture? 
How are the light and shade distributed? 

(d) In what city and in what building in that city may the 

original painting be seen? 

f. Reference books. A few of the most helpful school library 
books on this subject are the following: 

Cady & Dewey. Picture stories from the great artists 

Emery. How to enjoy pictures 

Home & Scobey. Stories of great artists 

Powers. Stories of famous pictures, books 1 and 2 

Rydingsvard. Art studies for schools. 

See also the various books by Estelle Hurl. There is one for each 
of eight artists. There are several other books given under Fne Arts 
in the Township Library List, any of which is helpful. 



LANGUAGE 91 

g. Artists represented. It will be seen by looking over the 
names of the artists in the lists of pictures for study that an at- 
tempt has been made to include, so far as was expedient with the 
limitations imposed by the immaturity of the children and the lim- 
ited time at their disposal, at least one picture by each of the artists 
who are by general consent placed in the first rank. The mere 
recognition of these pictures by name and by artist has cultural value. 
The two should always be associated. Discovering one or more other 
pictures by the same artist is a delight. 

h. Collections of pictures. A collection of carefully selected 
Perry or Brown pictures, well mounted and well cared for (prefer- 
ably in a filing drawer), would enhance the joy of every child much as 
does the possession of a victrola by a school. The grouping of pic- 
tures on the same subject and the choice of the one preferred tends 
to interest children. Some of them will like the Sistine Madonna 
best, some the Madonna of the Chair, others the Bodenhausen Ma- 
donna, etc. A few American artists and sculptors have been pur- 
posely included. No child should leave our elementary schools with- 
out some day hoping and planning to see in Madison, Milwaukee, Chi- 
cago, New York, or Boston, some of the glories of American art. The 
decorations in the new Capitol (especially Blashfield's painting in 
the Assembly Chamber) and the art treasures of the Historical Mu- 
seum should be mentioned at least. Get children interested in notic- 
ing the pictures and decorative features of schools, libraries, church- 
es, and homes. 

i. Catalogues of a few firms that have inexpensive pictures: 

Bureau of University Travel, Trinity Place, Boston. Prints, 
size 514x7% inches, 1 cent each, 80 cts, per hundred. 
Good classified catalogue. 

Brown, G. P. 38 Lovett St., Beverly, Mass. Pictures similar to 
the Perry pictures; price 1 cent each in lots of 10 or more; 
$1 for 120. 

Houghton Mimin Co.., 3 7 8-386 Wabash Ave., Chicag-o. Por- 
trait catalogue, price 10 cents. "Portraits of authors and 
their homes," price 20 cts. for 10; 1 ct. each in lots of 100. 

Perry Picture Co., Maiden, Mass. Reproductions of famous 
pictures and noted persons and places, forest trees, Indian 
portraits. Price 1 ct. each in lots of ten or more; 120 for 
$1. A 5 ct. size can also be obtained. 

Prang: Educational Co. 378-386 Wabash Ave., Chicag-o. Re- 
productions of famous pictures and noted persons and 
places, forest trees, Indian portraits. Regular size 5% x8 
inches. Price 1 ct. each in lots of twenty-five or over. 
120 for $1. 
Some of these firms also have larger copies suitable for schoolroom 
decoration. 

3. Poetry. An important phase of language work is the study of 
poetry. It is important not merely because of its reaction upon the 
pupil's choice of words but mainly because it makes possible a more 
complete appreciation of life, because it adds a valuable contribution 
to the pupil's emotional equipment, and provides enjoyment for his 



92 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

leisure hours. The main object to be attained in the teaching of 
poetry are to get the pupils to like the poems and to store their 
minds with precious possessions. 

Poetry will do for children what little else can do to bring them 
to a love and appreciation for the best in literature. 

"It will give them the habit of carrying a literary quality in their 
conversation. 

"It will give them a heart full of fresh and delightful associa- 
tions and memories connected with poetry hour to brighten mature 
years. 

"A poem should be so read that it will sing itself into the hearts 
of the children. The best way to teach children to love a poem is 
to read it inspiringly to them." 

a. A general method for the teacher to use in all grades is as 
follows: 

(1) The preparation of the minds of the pupils for the selec- 
tion by giving them or causing them to get the historical or geograph- 
ical setting, or the information needed for the appreciation of the 
selection. 

The Sand Piper by Celia Thaxter should be prepared for by talking 
with the children about the sand piper, showing them the picture and 
telling them of the New Hampshire light house where the sand piper 
lady lived. 

Thanksgiving Day. by Child requires an acquaintance with New Eng- 
land customs and weather. 

The Song of the Chattahoochee requires a map of the Southern States 
showing the location of the rivers, etc. 

(2) The building up by explanation and by appeal to the chil- 
dren's experience, of the mental pictures which occur in the selection. 
This will include a discu£l3ion of words used by the author, especially 
when they have a peculiar significance. 

This is necessary only when the author's words are not alreadj^ in 
the children's vocabularies in the sense in which he uses them. For 
instance, before CocTc Bohin is read to first grade children, they may 
need to know something about the meaning of shroud, parson, cleric, 
Mte, linTc, psalm, and toll. 

(3) The story of hotv the author came to write the poem, or 
the imagined circumstances under which it was done. This is gen- 
erally all the literary biography that children need. Often we do 
not know the circumstances, but we can always imagine what they 
might have been. 

(4) The presentation of the poem in complete form given 
with the best expression of which the teacher is capable. The poem 
should either have been committed to memory or it should have been 
so thoroughly mastered that the teacher is quite independent of the 
book. While the poem is being rendered, a printed form may be in 
the children's hands. If it is not, the written form should be given 



LANGUAGE 93 

as the next step. The children may follow the teacher with their 
books open or closed, as it seems best. 

(5) The assignment of the poem as a reading lesson. This 
may or may not be followed by 

(6) Committing the selection to memory. 

b. These preparatory steps necessary. No poem should be 
learned by heart until these preparatory steps have been taken. 
When a poem is committed, it is better to have it learned as a whole 
by successive readings than to have it studied stanza by stanza. 

c. Collections of poetry. Every school is likely to profit far 
more by using three or four collections or compilations of poetry 
listed in the Township Library List than by the use of several vol- 
umes by individual authors. A volume by an individual author 
should be the fourth or fifth purchase of poetry for the library, never 
the first or second. The collection entitled "Selections for Study and 
Memorizing," — a very careful compilation arranged by a committee 
of New York teachers — is perhaps the best for country schools and 
should be the first volume purchased. 

From the books of poems listed in the Township Library List, the 
following are named as those that make the strongest appeal: 

Alexander and Blake. Graded poetry readers 
Shute. Land of song-, books 1 and 2 
Wiggin and Smith. Posy ring and Golden numbers. 
Note. If none of these collections is in the library, but there is 
some other book containing poems, the teacher should make use of it. 

4. Original work. In the conversational work pupils get practice 
in describing their observations and telling about their experiences. 
This phase of language work prepares pupils for one of the great 
uses to which all people put their language training, — taking part 
in the everyday conversations of life. If pupils are ever to hold 
their listeners, it will be because the teacher helps them to clarify 
and vitalize the knowledge which they gain at first hand. The teach- 
er herself must frequently contribute from her own observation and 
experience by telling interesting things she has heard, and also by 
giving her ideas regarding subjects in which children are interested. 
This will arouse the children's interest and enthusiasm, and lead to 
a desire for exipression on their part. 

The desire for self-expression can also be stimulated by training 
the imagination of children. To develop originality the following 
suggestions are given: 

a. Imaginary settings. Let a child in the primary class be re- 
quired to give an imaginary setting to a sentence. Suppose the sen- 
tence placed before the class is: "They all ran to find it." This sen- 
tence is to come as the climax of a little incident. In order to give 
the incident the children will be required to determine who may be 
meant by "they all." What may be meant by "it?" Not all objects 
that can be designated by "they" would run to find something. "To 



94 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

find" means to the child the selection of some objects capable of the 
act of searching, and "ran" will demand the selection of some object 
that may display eagerness in searching. The following is an illus- 
tration of the work done with a third year class with the sentence 
just discussed. At the end of the conversational exercise a little 
child gave the following: 

"There was once a mother hen that had a brood of little chickens. 
One day some one threw some feed to her. 'Cluck, cluck, cluck' went 
the mother hen. 'Come here I want to show you what I have.' She 
ipretended she was eating. Fluff said, 'Mother has found something 
to eat; let us see what it is.' So they all ran to find it." 

This delightful game will move forward with much more zest if 
the teacher can herself continue the game by narrating the events 
that might lead up to another such sentence as "I never saw a little 
lad so proud." The children admiring their teacher's stories will 
catch from her the atmosphere that will enable them to place in im- 
aginative settings such sentences as "I am going to put mine away," 
or "We must send it to Mary." An examination of first or second 
reader not studied by the children will help a teacher to find many 
sentences adapted to this work. 

b. Application of proverbs. As the pupil advances in the grades 
he may be asked to invent or recall an incident or situation to which 
a proverb or a quotation will apply. Under what circumstances 
might one person say to another: "A rolling stone gathers no moss," 
or "Catch your chicken before you grease your pan?" 

c. Finishing stories. A story may be begun and the children 
asked to finish it in writing at their seats. Before they are dis- 
missed, however, they should discuss some probable sequels. 

d. Forecasting, Let pupils forecast what is likely to happen 
in the creamery they are to visit or at, the picnic they are to at- 
tend, or at the Christmas tree celebration for which they are plan- 
ning. 

e. Pupils' sentences. The greatest opportunity of evoking orig- 
inal work from the pupils in the formal work of the school is in 
exacting a high standard in the sentences which they are asked to 
give in reading, spelling and language classes to illustrate the use 
of definite words, or of marks of punctuation, or of part-s of speech, 
etc. If the teacher will expect something better than the "pale 
gruel of talk" generally accepted, the sentences will become an 
educative influence on the pupils who formulate them. In illustra- 
tive sentences any words or expressions which are used so often 
that they may rightly be called hackneyed, humdrum and common- 
place should not be accepted. The test of a good sentence furnished 
by a child is the expectancy with which the other children await 
the statement and their expressions of satisfaction or admiration 
with which they hear it. Having heard a good sentence given, they 
begin to exert themselves to give something equally worthy of their 



LANGUAGE 95 

abilities. However, no teacher can liope to get sucli sentences un- 
less she herself is ready to furnish them, 

f. Typical sentences. The list given under Seat Work for the 
Language Class will be suggestive. After copying, adapting, con- 
densing, or expanding book sentences as they stand, using them as 
models, children enjoy making any knowledge they have along any 
line contribute to the sentences they give. (See Original Work 
under Written Work in this Course of study, p. 97) 

5. Written work. "The effort to write not only makes clearer 
what is already more or less vaguely known but develops new 
thought." 

"Writing has an indirect but very considerable effect upon the 
speech. * * * That their seech may be truthful and convinc- 
ing we have pupils write." 

"All tendencies to use poor or scrappy paper, to offer slovenly man- 
uscripts, to scribble and throw off careless work needs to be firmly 
and quietly rebuked." 

a. Preserving children's work. It would contribute greatly to 
improvement in language teaching if it were the custom for every 
county superintendent and supervising teacher to ask a country 
teacher to show them the language books in which the children of 
the intermediate .and upper classes keep much of their written lan- 
guage work. Such books might well count towards the diploma ex- 
amination in language and grammar. Children should preserve 
much work of which but one draft is made and they should always 
preserve the second draft of compositions having two drafts. 

b. Blackboard work. Besides this work on paper there should 
be considerable written blackboard work. 

"The desire of the child is to share his experience with every 
member of the class. A blackboard exercise is the only adequate 
means of accomplishing this end. Then, in addition to the exchange 
of experiences, there is an opportunity to correct errors in sentence 
structure, punctuation and spelling." 

c. Comparisons. A question which should frequently be asked 
as the children examine blackboard work which has been dictated 
by them for the teacher to write, or which they have written on the 
board themselves, is this: "Which arrangement is better, this or 
that?" 

d. Discovering eri'ors. When a pupil has been led to try to 
find his errors in order to do better next time, the battle is more 
than half won. After a pupil has found as many of his own errors 
as he can find quickly, let othel* pupils mention the errors they no- 
tice. 

e. The recitation period. Some of the written work at the 
seats should, like the blackboard work, be done during the recita- 
tion period. Let the teacher pass around, placing a check in the 
margin wherever she sees a mistake. This check indicates to the 



96 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

pupil that he is to read the line or lines to see if he has not made 
an error in the writing of the sentence, in the spelling of a word, 
etc. When the teacher returns a few minutes later the mistake is 
often corrected. A period and a capital may have been inserted, 
thus showing that the pupil has "a sentence sense"; or the missing 
word may have been supplied, etc. Again, let the children write 
undisturbed for ten minutes at their seats. Then let the teacher 
give a signal which indicates to the children that they read what 
they have written and find their own mistakes. The aim in written 
work is not to have papers containing a number of mistakes care- 
fully corrected by the children after the teacher has found them, 
but to have the papers come to the teacher reasonably free from 
mistakes. 

f. Writing for a reader. It helps greatly in securing a high 
standard of written work if each pupil writes with a reader in mind. 
Devise* some plan of exchange so that many compositions come to 
the teacher after they have been corrected by a pupil. Every such 
composition has satisfied two pupils: the writer and the pupil reader. 
Each one of the two is responsible for its freedom from gross errors. 

g. Kinds of written work. Written work is of three kinds: 

a. That done with a book open. The book may be a text in 
language, reading or geography, or a library book — in fact any book 
designated for the purpose: 

(1) Words, phrases, sentences, etc., may be arranged in col- 
umns, or a certain number of sentences found which fulfill certain 
requirements. (See Seat Work for the Language Classes, p. 98.) 

(2) A paragraph may be condensed from a page. 

(3) Sentences may be changed by the pupils: 

(a) From one number, tense, etc. to another. 

(b) From a sentence of three or four words to a sen- 

tence of seven or eight or more words by intro- 
ducing descriptive words, phrases, etc, 

(c) By taking a sentence which serves as a type of cor- 

rect usage, preserving the troublesome word but 
changing other words. 

(d) By choosing one of two words suggested and writ- 

ing the sentence with the preferred word. 

(e) By so rewriting book sentences as to secure variety 

of statement by introducing synonyms, antonyms 
with "not," a change in the order of the words, 
comparisons, etc. 

(4) Paragraphs may occasionally be copied just as they are 

printed — "printer's copy." 

(5) Descriptions of pictures or stories based on pictures may 

be written. 

(6) Quotations, bits of conversation, etc, which have especially 

pleased the compiler may be copied. Each pupil 
will have his own choice passages. 

(7) Figures of speech may be copied. 

(8) Book sentences may be consciously imitated in form but 

the material chosen as the subject may be new. 



LANGUAGE 97 



(9) A story or a chapter or an oral or written composition may 
be outlined. 

(10) Letters which illustrate charm and courtesy may be copied 

from a variety of sources. 

(11) Answers may be written to such questions as the follow- 

ing on a reading- lesson- 

(a) Name the different persons who come into the se- 

lection and tell what each does. 

(b) What do others say about the chief characters? 

(c) What do the chief characters say about themselves? 

How do their actions agree with this? 

(d) How much space, comparatively, has the author 

given to his description of different characters? 
Why? 

(e) Which paragraph introduces each character? 

(f) In which paragraph do we find the best description 

of each character? 

Beginning ivith third year at least, children should make exact copies 
of the poems which they are asked to commit to mem.ory. Thcf-ie 
poems should T)e preserved in a took kept for this purpose only, and 
preserved throughout their elementary school course. 

b. Kxercises without a book, which are chiefij'- reproductive: 

(1) Writing from memory a particular stanza or stanzas of a 

poem; write the stanza of "Good Night and Good 
Morning" beginning with "She did not say to the 
sun good night." 

(2) Writing from memory the whole of a fable or short anec- 

dote. 

(3) Writing from memory a paragraph or two from a longer 

story. 

(4) Writing from memory a conversation heard or an experi- 

ence shared by the writer. 

(5) A description of a person, or building, or flower, etc.. 

known to the writer. 

(6) An explanation of how to do something that the writer has 

done. 

(7) The ten most important news items for the month. 

(8) The answers to such questions as the following on reading 

lessons: 

(a) In what way are any people you have known liJce 

any of the chrtxacters in this story? 

(b) How does in this selection com- 

pare with in another selection? 

c. Original work — Exercises without a book which develop and 
test chiefly the pupils' power to imagine: 

(1) A list of original sentences to illustrate the use of certain 

woi'ds. 

(2) A copy of a letter which was sent. 

(3) A daily diary kept for a week. 

(4) An original poem. 

(5) An autobiography impersonating a postage stamp, or a 
broom, or a table, or a roV in. 

(fi) Imaginative settings for sentences or proverbs (p. 71-72) 
"^ An attempt to persuade a grown up person to let the writer 
have certain privileges, etc. 

7— S. M. 



(O 



98 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

' (8) Puzzles copied from magazines and solved. ' 

(9) Finishing stories begun in class (p. 72). 

(10) Forecasting events (p. 72). 

(11) The answers to such questions as the following on a selec- 

tion studied in reading or on a library book read: 

(a) What did the author think of in this se- 

lection? 

(b) What was the author's mood when he wrote this? 

(c) What kind of man do you think wrote this? 

(d) Why did the author say ? 

(e) Why did the author name so many places in this se- 

lection ? 

(f)If you were writing this would you ? 

(g) What would you have done if you were ? 

7. Letter writing. "We can become good letter writers by gath- 
ering all manner of riches into our lives; by reading letters of th'^ 
best letter writers; and by practicing the writing of good letters." 

"A letter perfectly correct in form may be without value; where- 
as a letter which bears the imprint of the writer's mind and hrart is 
above price." — From Calloway Studies for Letters. 

a. Its interest for children. Letter writing is a form of com- 
position that appeals to all children. They see a reason for it. The 
father and the mother write letters and consciously or unconsciously 
it is impressed upon the children that letter writing is an essential 
element in their education. While other forms of composition may 
be looked upon as tasks to be accomplished because set by the teach- 
er, letter writing can be made a pleasure particularly if freedom of 
choice as to subject matter is allowed. Children should write real 
letters to real persons and mail every one if that be possible. No 
soldier is interested in "firing his ammunition into the void." With 
a few suggestions children become eager to talk and write about 
what concerns themselves, their personal experiences, occurrences 
at home, their friends, playmates, their holidays and vacation hap- 
penings, all of which can be made to contribute to the idea of 
freely expressing their own thoughts in their own way, which is one 
of the highest aims of education. 

b. Standards in letter writing. Once a month is not too often 
to have" children in the intermediate and upper classes write letters. 
There should be gradation and variety in length, subject matter, 
kinds of letters etc. Before a pupil leaves the sixth grade, correct 
headings, placing and writing of salutations, complimentary closings 
and signatures should have become automatic. 

No one should receive a diploma from an elementary school who 
has not the consciousness that he can write easily, quickly and cor- 
rectly an interesting letter. 

8. Seat work for the language classes. The illustrations given 
below indicate how pupils beginning with the third or fourth grade 
may examine texts in reading and later in geography, history, and 
hygiene to find certain definite things. All have been taken from 
texts in common use. This form of educative seat work will help 



LANGUAGE 99 

children to see groups of words as units; will get them acquainted 
with the correct forms of troublesome words; will give them a stand- 
ard for their own sentences and, above all, will enlarge their vocab- 
ularies. 

The teacher should start the work in class and should give the 
page on which children will find "three groups of words containing 
o/," or "five expressions containing and," etc. 

When pupils reach the fifth grade, they may often be asked to 
adapt or condense the book sentences before they copy them to il- 
lustrate the correct use of different words. Some of the sentences 
in these illustrations have been so adapted or condensed. 

These lists should be added to from time to time as pupils find 
suitable expressions. It is well to have the pupils' progress reported 
occasionally and the lists made by different pupils compared. The 
lists should be closed only after a more or less extended period of 
time. 

a. A descriptive word and a noun 

friendly earth a docile hound 

gracious God whole-souled honesty 

curious flight v/andering bee 

b. Two descriptive words and a noun 

lowly thatched cottage gourd water vessels 

lofty elm tree a highborn respectable tree 

a little old man a rosy dark-eyed child 

c. Expressions ending in words with the suffix ly. 

tucked in firmly trembled secretly 

had eaten slowly looked at her inquisitively 

d. Expressions beginning with words in ly 

extremely slow successfully treated 

conveniently low 

e. Expressions containing off 

chipped ofe a few flakes slipped it off almost whole 

peeled off large pieces sailed off in a wooden shoe 

f. Expressions containing of 

outcries of fright basket of popcorn 

a day of thanksgiving place of refuge 

bowl of stew a corner of the rug 

kinds of game lining of the nostril 

roasts of deer rings of cartilage 

g. Expressions containing in 

a commotion in the pool blowing in the right direction 
a hand in the matter in a sorry plight 

h. Expressions containing with 

pale with alarm combats with wild beasts 

loosen with hammers touched it with their foreheads 

i. Expressions containing for 

trophies for the bravest man ready for questions 

a crumb for a robin died for lack of oxygen 



100 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



j. Two nouns connected by and 

cries and fears fern and moss 

lords and ladies king and queen 

whoops and yells sailing and shining 

snow and ice stories and plays 

wrong and evil 

k. Expression:- containing two /descriptive words joined by and, 
and a noun 
a dangerous and wicked business 
slow and difficult task 
a haughty and disagreeable temi.er 
a careless and lazy maid 
a long and thin nose 

1. Two or more words joined by or 

a walrus or hippopotamus a ventilator or a fireplace 

disorderly or untidy people live or go 

m. Sentences to illustrate characteristic actions of animals 
the rabbit scurried away 
The pigs came grunting to his feet 
The frolicsome yearlings frisk and jump 
A dog prowls about 
The cat goes cavorting around. 

n. Pronouns after It was or than 

It was he who discovered the first known of the five great 

lakes in 1615 
It was we who looked abroad on foreign lands. 
There is no one in the world wiser than she. 

o. Possessive plural 

And all around I heard you pass 

Like ladies' skirts across the grass. 

In the bakers' windows are bears made of gingerbread. 

p. Comparisons 

More rapid than eagles his coursers they came. 
His cheeks were like roses; his nose like a cherry. 
And the smoke it encircled his head like a wreath. 

q. To illustrate their 

Visions of sugar plums danced in their heads. 
These are my children and I am their mother. 

r. To illustrate too 

Let me speak a word, too. 

The tear tube is there, too. 

The bristles should not be too near- together. 

s. Sentences expressing negation 

The ugly duckling is doing no harm. 
The mosquito lays no eggs in the soil. 
There were no birds or flowers in the woods. 

t. The objective form of pronouns 

Was this asbestos sent from Canada for you and me? 
The city should secure pure water for them and us. 
The germs cannot be seen by her or me. 



LANGUAGE 101 



u. Uses of lie 

All the toys beside me lay. 

The golden key was lying- on the glass table. 

I was stiff from, lying so still. 

The brownie lay at ease until daybreak. 

V. The apostrophe to denote possession 

Hiawatha's canoe was made of the bark of the birch tree. 
Champlain's enemies were pleased to have the Iroquois 

hate him. 
Grandmother's cap I spy. 
The river was the sky's blue looking glass. 



IV. TESTS AND EXAMINATIONS 

Since the character of the diploma examination has a great influ- 
ence upon work done in the school, it is important that the questions 
asked by the superintendent be of such a nature that they will lead 
teachers to place emphasis upon the proper kind of language work. 
Too often the questions deal largely with technical grammar, with 
the result that the teachers lay an undue stress upon that phase of 
language study. As a general rule it may be safely stated that 
out of 100 points in a language examination not more than thirty 
should be based upon the work in grammar. 

To test language power is not an easy task in the diploma exam- 
ination. Several phases of the language work ought to be consid- 
ered in determining the standard that should be set for graduation. 

The county superintendent and the supervising teacher should 
take note of the oral language work done in the different classes of 
the school. It would be well to speak to the school regarding the 
importance of this work and thus emphasize it in the minds of both 
teachers and pupils. Attention should also be called to the im- 
portance of good written work. As has been suggested, it would be 
an incentive to the children if their written work were looked over 
by the superintendent and supervising teacher and appropriate com- 
ments and suggestions offered. 

The examination itself should emphasize the importance of good 
language work in all school subjects. Some account should be taken 
of the pupil's ability in the use of language as shown in the manu- 
script on a subject like history or geography. 

When a pupil finishes the common school he should have the 
ability: 

1. To write ordinary business and friendship letters and other 
necessary business papers. 

2. To use the punctuation marks and capital letters needed in 
ordinary written work. 

3. To write from dictation, ordinary prose containing subject 
matter about which he has studied. 



102 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

4. To outline topics found in the subjects studied and to write 
simple compositions from such outlines. 

5. To give from, memory selections of poetry. (It is suggested 
that each county superintendent select a minimum list for his coun- 
ty.) 

6. To write in good English well-known stories, giving proper at- 
tention to paragraphing. 

7. To recognize, by giving name and artist, at least twenty-*five 
famous pictures. 

8. To use a reasonably adequate vocabulary. 

9. To use habitually the correct forms set forth in the course of 
study under mechanics of language. 

10. To construct sentences illustrating the elements outlined in 
the grammar course. 

11. To apply and illustrate the rules of syntax taught in the 
grammar course. 

12. To analyze sentences that are not too complicated and that 
do not involve elements not studied in the grammar course. 

13. To use the dictionary. 

14. To use the books in the library. 

Examination questions should be so formulated that they will 
test the pupil's language power, not simply his knowledge of tech- 
nical constructions. 



V. REFERENCES 

1. For teachers and institutions that train teachers 

Barnes. English in the country schools. Row. 

Calloway. Charm and courtesy in letter writing. Dodd. 

Charters. Teaching the common branches, p. 44-103. (T)'. 

Chubb. The teaching of English. Macmillan. 

Hoslc. The elementary course in English. University of Chi- 
cago Press, Chicago. 

Kendall & Mirick. How to teach the fundamental subjects. 
Houghton. 

Klapper. The teaching of English. (T). 

McMurry. Handbook of practice for teachers, p. 75-88. 
Macmillan. 

Palmer. Self-cultivation in English. Houghton. 

Patzer. Modern methods of teaching language, reading and 
spelling. H. M. Dixon & Co., Chicago. 

Potter & Boyd. Selected stories for primary grades. White- 
water Normal School. 5 cents. 

Power. Lists of stories and programs for story hours. 110 p., 
paper 20 c; 10 copies $1.25. H. W. Wilson Co., White 
Plains, N. Y. 

Rankin. Everyday English. Ed. Pub. Co. 

Stewart. Bulletin On the teaching of English. Published by 
the Oshkosh State Normal School. 15c, 

2. For teachers and pupils 

Hale. How to do it, p. 26-143. (T). 



LANGUAGE 103 

VI. IjAnguage outline 

(See suggestion given at bottom of page XIII.) 

I. General Suggestions 

1. Functions of language 

2. Motives 

a. Literary society 

b. Special programs 

c. Letters 

d. Home work 

e. School paper 

f. Diary 

g. Local papers 
h. Booklets 

i. Desire to excel 

j. Preservation of work. 

3. Correlation 

4. Oral language work 

5. Written work 

6. Language habits 

7. Phases which need constant attention 

8. Tests of a good language text 

a. Significant topics chosen 

b. Good models 

c. Correct forms 

d. Children's experiences 

e. Vocabulary work 

f. Letters 

g. Conversational exercises 
h. Dictation 

i. Deferring of grammar 
j. Inspiration 

9. County uniformity in stories, poems, and pictures 

10. Library reading 

11. Use of dictionary 

II. Course of Study 

First and Second years 

1. Oral work 

a. Conversational exercises 

b. Pictures 

c. Reproduction and list of stories 

d. Dramatization 

e. Study of poems 

f. Vocabulary work 

g. Complete statements 

2. Written work 

a. Tracing 

b. Copying sentences used in the reader 

c. Copying sentences composed by children 

d. One use of capital and period taught by copying 

e. Look and write 

f. Dictation 

g. Four other uses of capitals 
h. Punctuation marks 

i. Outlines for poetry 

j. Original work 

k. Composite stories 



104 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



3. The mechanics of language 
a. A, an 

b. Is, are, was, were 

c. Pronouns after verbs 

d. May and can 

e. Saw, seen 

f. Am. not, etc., for aint 



Third and 


. Fourth years , 


Introduction 


1. 


Oral work 




a. 


Conversations 




b. 


Picture Study 




c. 


Reproductions and lists of storie 




d. 


Poems 




e. 


Dramatization 




f. 


Vocabulary work - 


2. 


Written work 




a. 


Joint compositions 




b. 


Long compositions avoided 




c. 


Apostrophe to show ownership 




d. 


Dictation exercises 




e. 


Writing poetry from memory 




f. 


Quotation marks 




g. 


Letter writing 


3. 


Lessons on the mechanics of language 




a. 


Reviews 




b. 


Homonyms 




c. 


Correct use of irregular verbs 




d. 


Common errors 




e. 


Singular and plural forms 



Fifth and Sixth years 

1. Oral work 

a. Conversation 

b. Pictures 

c. Outlines 

d. Vocabulary work 

e. History and other stories 

f. Library reading 

g. Poems 

h. Literary societies 

i. Forms of composition 

2. Written work 

a. Short written compositions 

b. Letter writing 

c. School Journal and programs 

d. Paragraphing 

e. Pupils' own experiences 

f. Dictation 

g. Writing poetry from memory 
h. Booklets 

3. Lessons on the mechanics of language 

a. Reviews 

b. Correct use of irregular verbs 

c. Pronunciation 

d. Correct use of adjectives 

e. Correct use of adverbs 

f. Correct use of pronouns 

g. Correct use of prepositions 



LANGUAGE 105 



Seventh and Eighth Grades 

1. Oral exercises 

a. Regular recitations 

b. School library books 

c. Book reports 

d. Vocabulary work 

e. Poems 

f. Pictures 

g. Editing a school paper 
h. Literary society 

i. Short talks 

2. Written work 

a. Adjusted to pupils' needs 

b. What written work should include 

(1) Writing from outlines 

(2) Relation of outline headings to paragraphs 

(3) Finding subjects of paragraphs 

(4) Encouraging individual correction 

(5) Business practice in arithmetic 

(6) High standards in penmanship 

3. Lessons on the mechanics of language (Grammar) 

Grammar 

1. Reasons for dislike of grammar 

a. Study is begun too early 

b. Too exhaustive a study made 

c. Textbooks are too difficult 

d. Pupils' progress is too rapid 

e. Practical value is not seen 

2. When the study of grammar should begin 

3. Suggestions for 8th grade work 

4. Source of illustrative sensences 

5. Divisions of time between grammar and composition 

6. Diagraming 

7. Textbooks 

8. Use of the dictionary 

9. Suggestive outline for teaching grammar 

a. Subject and predicate 

b. Verbs 

c. Singular and plural nouns 

d. Pronouns 

e. Verb phrases 

f. Adjectives 

g. Adverbs 

h. Discrimination in use of adjectives and adverbs 

i. Adjective phrases 

j. Adverb phrases 

k. Different uses of pronouns 

1. Compound subjects and conjunctions 

m. Compound predicates 

n. Predicate adjectives 

o. Predicate nouns 

p. Predicate pronouns 

q. Rules for personal pronouns 

r. Direct objects 

s. Indirect objects 

t. More rules for use of pronoun 

u. Who, whose, whom 

V. Nouns and pronouns in apposition 

w. Possessives 



106 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



X. Nouns of address 

y. Position of modifiers 

z. Correct use of negatives 

aa. Care in selecting prepositions 

bb. Principal parts of verbs 

CO. Adjective clauses 

dd. Relative pronouns 

ee. Adverb clauses 

ff. Noun clauses 

gg. Compound sentences 

hh. Summary of rules 



III. Suggestions with Regard to Particular Phases of the Work 

1. Vocabulary work 

Introduction 

a. Literature as a source of words 

b. Study of synonyms 

c. Acquaintance with definite words 

d. Prevention of slang 

e. Typical exercises 

f. Puzzles 

2. Picture study 

a. Love of pictures 

b. List given in this course 

c. Classification of pictures 

d. Treatment of picture study 

e. General outline 

(1) Picture as a whole 

(2) Relation of characters to one another 

(3) Incidents in artist's life bearing on the picture 

(4) Means employed by artist 

f. Reference books 

g. Artists represented 
h. Picture collections 
i. Catalogs 

3. Poetry 

Introduction 

a. General method for use 

(1) Preparation of minds of pupils 

(2) Building of pictures by explanation, etc, 

(3) Circumstances of the .writing 

(4) Presentation of poem 

(5) Assignment 

(6) Committing to memory 

b. Preparations necessary 

c. Collections of poetry 

4. Original work 

Introduction 

a. Imaginative settings 

b. Application of proverbs 

c. Original poems 

d. Forecasting 

e. Pupils' sentences 

f. Typical sentences 



LANGUAGE 107 



5. How to managre written work 

Introduction 

a. Preserving children's work 

b. Blackboard work 

c. Comparisons 

d. Discovering errors 

e. Using the recitation period for writing 

f. Writing for a reader 

6. Kinds of written work 

a. With the book open 

(1) Column work 

(2) Condensing a paragraph from a page 

(3) Changing sentences 

(4) Copying paragraphs 

(5) Describing pictures 

(6) Copying quotations, etc. 

(7) Copying figures of speech 

(8) Imitating book sentences 

(9) Outlining stories, etc. 

(10) Copying letters 

(11) Answering questions on a reading lesson 

b. Memory exercises without a book 

(1) Writing poetry 

(2) Writing fables 

( 3 ) Writing paragraphs from a story 

(4) Writing conversations 

(5) Describing a person, etc. 
( 6 ) Explanations 

(7) News items 

(8) Answering questions on a reading lesson 

c. Original work 

(1) Illustrative sentences 

(2) Letters 

(3) Diaries 

(4) Poems 

(5) Autobiographies 

(6) Imaginative settings 

(7) Exercises illustrating persuasion 

(8) Solving puzzles 

(9) Finishing stories 

(10) Forecasting events 

(11) Answering questions on reading lessons 

7. Letter writing 
Introduction 

a. Its interest for children 

b. Standards in letter writing 



Seat work for the language classes 
Illustrations of typical work 

a. A descriptive word and a noun 

b. Two descriptive words and a noun 

c. Expressions ending in adverbs 

d. Expressions beginning with adverbs 

e. Expressions containing off 
t. Expressions containing of 
g. Expressions containing in 
h. Expressions containing with 
i. Expressions containing for 



108 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



j. Expressions containing descriptions 

k. Two nouns connected by and 

1. Two or more words joined by or 

m. Sentences to illustrate actions of animals 

n. Sentences containing- pronouns 

o. Possessive plurals 

p. Comparisons 

q. Expressions containing their 

r. Expressions containing too 

s. Sentence expressing negation 

t. Objective forms of pronouns 

u. Uses of lie 

V. Expressions containing a possessive 

IV. Tests and Examinations 
Introduction 

1. Letters 

2. Punctuation marks and capitals 

3. Dictation work 

4. Outlines 

5. Writing poetry 

6. Writing stories 

7. Acquaintance with pictures 

8. A reasonably adequate vocabulary 

9. Habitual use of correct forms 

10. Illustrative sentences for grammatical forms 

11. Acquaintance with rules of syntax 

12. Analysis of sentences 

13. Use of dictionary 

14. Use of library books 

V, References 

Eleven books 



WRITING 109 



WRITING 



I. GENERAL. SUGGESTIONS 

1. Purpose of work. Good writing in school depends largely upon 
the method of teaching in the lower classes. If the pupils have been 
started correctly and have been given to understand the importance 
of the vital things in writing, they will leave the school with the 
ability to write an easy, free, legible hand. The purpose of the 
work in writing is essentially the same in all schools and in all 
classes, namely, to acquire the ability to write legibly, neatly, rap- 
idly and with power of endurance. The importance of proper ma- 
terials, position and movement cannot be overestimated, especially 
in the middle and lower classes. These three things form the basis 
of good writing and are briefly discussed below. Without any one 
of them, good results cannot be obtained. 

2. Materials. The materials used in writing are very important. 
A good grade of paper of sufficient weight should be used so that the 
ink will not spread. It should be of the ordinary business letter 
size 8%"xll" ruled so that both sides may be used. 

The penholder should be large and straight, with either cork or 
rubber tip. The metal tip holder should not be used. Pens should 
be large and coarse, especially for the pupils in the lower and mid- 
dle classes. Any of the standard inks will give excellent results. 
Never allow practice with poor pens or poor paper. It is better not 
to practice at all than to practice with poor materials. 

3. Position. Have the pupils sit squarely in front of the desk, or 
have the right side a little nearer the desk than the left, so that the 
line of vision is nearly parallel with the edge of the desk. The 
feet should rest on the floor, the left one slightly in advance of the 
right. The body should incline forward from the hips. The back 
should not bend, nor should the shoulders be permitted to droop, 
as a healthful position is especially desirable. The head should not 
incline to either side. This should be watched very closely. The 
left arm should be placed on the desk to bear the weight of the 
body. The right arm should be placed on the desk so that the right 
and left should come together in front of the body, forming a right 
angle. Close the right hand so that the tips or the first joints of the 



110 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

.fingers rest on the desk. When this is done we have the correct 
position for free, muscular writing. The holder should be placed 
between the thumb and, the first two fingers and point a little to 
the right of the right shoulder. Care should be taken to have the 
desks properly adjusted and cleared of everything except the writing 
material. 

4. Movement. Muscular movement '3 absolutely essential to good 
writing. Place the arms on the desk as described in the preceding 
paragraph, and close the fingers of the right hand tightly. See how 
far the pupil can move the arm in and out of, the sleeve without 
slipping the sleeve on the desk. The movement should always be 
to and from the body. A slight rolling motion is given to the mus 
cles of the forearm. This movement practice with the hand closed 
for a few days will gradually loosen the muscles of the arm. After 
this movement has been developed, gradually open the hand to about 
the position in writing and place the holder in position as described 
and the pupil is ready to begin to use the pen in movement drills. 

5. Form. In all penmanship practice we must not forget that 
the study of form is just as important as the mastery of movement. 
The mind must have a clear conception of the form of the letter be- 
fore the hand can be expected to make it. The mental picture is 
formed by the study of a good copy either on the blackboard or on 
paper. When the pupil has formed the right conception of the form 
and has mastered the movement, his progress becomes rapid. He 
has an ideal. His interest increases and he takes pride in his work. 
Great care must be taken, however, in the transition from the move- 
ment drills to the writing of words and sentences lest the pupil get 
into the habit of using the finger movement. No movement what- 
ever is required by the fingers except that which is needed in hold- 
ing the penholder. 

6. Style of writing; copy books. The slant style of writing should 
be taught. A slant of 75 to 85 degrees is the most natural one. It 
will vary with different pupils and no exact slant can be followed 
in all cases. A reproduced pen-copy should be before the pupils at 
all times. Copy books in which practice matter is to be written are 
not recommended. 

7. The writing period. There should be a regular period for 
writing. During this period the teacher should give her whole at- 
tention to the exercise and not conduct a class in some other sub- 
ject. No music teacher would think of doing some other piece of 
work while a pupil is at her side to receive instruction. Penman- 
ship, like piano-playing, depends on muscular control. One exer- 
cise requires the teacher's guidance, as much as the other. Occa- 
sionally a longer period may be taken for this work. When the 
teacher has a series of exercises to be practiced, a half hour on 



WRITING 111 

Friday afternoon can be profitably spent on this subject. Parents 
will not object to extra time spent in writing practice. 

8. Planning the work. Enthusiasm is necessary to secure good 
results in this subject as well as in any other. The ordinary time- 
killing exercise results in poor writing rather than in improvement. 
The work should be planned for the writing period as well as for any 
other school exercise. There must be a definite aim in each les- 
son. Do not attempt too many things in one exercise. The writ- 
ing should not be allowed to deteriorate into merely "drawing the 
letters." 

9. Outside practice. After the pupils have become aceustomed to 
the correct position (3) and the position has become a habit, and 
after they have acquired the proper movement (4), they should 
be encouraged to practice outside of the regular writing period. If 
this preliminary work has been well done and the pupils have be- 
come enthusiastic over the subject, this practice will become good 
"seat work." Care should be exercised, however, not to have pupils 
practice much without supervision until correct position and cor- 
rect movement becomes habitual. 

The larger pupils may also be encouraged to practice at home. 
They should, however, be reminded of the fact that the writing done 
at home should be just as carefully done as that don© at school, 
as it is very easy to acquire bad or careless habits when practicing 
without supervision. The materials used in practicing should be 
good, the table should be of Ihe proper kind, and the light should 
be good. Specimens of writing done at home may be brought to 
the teacher for suggestions. The exercises practiced at home should 
be those studied at school. 

10. Ck>ntests. Writing contests, if properly conducted, are in- 
centives to progress. In such contests consideration should be 
given both to legibility and rapidity. Take, for instance, some ex- 
ercise that they have been practicing, as the word "man." When 
they have learned to write the word well, see how many times they 

can write it in a minute. Take the watch. Ready, write 

time up. Collect papers. Make suggestions on their papers and 
return them the next day. Use various devices to add interest. 
Sometimes competition may be established among neighboring 
schools. 

11. Writing exhibits. Do not neglect to compliment pupils on 
progress made. Do not exhibit only the 'best work. Show the im- 
provement some poor writer has made during a certain period of 
time. Note especially the progress that has been made in certain 
letters on which the pupil has practiced. Place some of the writing 
on the walls of the schoolroom and let the pupils inspect it. In this 
way they will have a chance to compare one another's work and 
receive many suggestions. 



112 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

12. Writing is thought-expression. Writing should not be thought 
of merely as a mechanical process; it is thought-expression. The 
mechanics of writing, like the mechanics of reading and the me- 
chanics of language, is but the means to an end. 

Remember that written work in spelling, written work in lan- 
guage, as well as written examinations of all kinds, are exercises 
in penmanship. Do not give the pupils more of this work than they 
can do well. 

13. Suggestive drill exercises. (Copies reduced one-third.) 

Exercise 1 • 




Exercise 2 




Exercise 3 




Exercise 4 




Exercise 5 




Exercise 



WRITING 



113 



Exercise 7 




Exercise 8 



y^yyyjTy)^Tyyi^ /'?^po^^^yyyyyzy ,- )^Tyyryy^yy^'Z^' 




Exercise 9 



\ \ 




Exercise 10 








Exercise 11 



--^^^<L^^ -JL^ 



114 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

Exercise 12 

c7 6S ^ uy^ .^^-i^ 9^^ Jl 



^^Z^ 



Exercise IS 




II. COURSE OF STUDY 

1. First Exercises. The first work in the lower grades (or in 
any grade if pupils have not mastered the fundamentals in posi- 
tion and movement) should be the study of position, the develop- 
ment of movement, and pen or pencil holding without any strokes 
on paper. This movement should develop freedom or elasticity in 
the muscles in the arm without permitting the pencil to touch the 
paper. During this period (of about three or four weeks) pupils 
should be made to understand that the correct position should be 
assumed and the muscular movement should be used whenever any 
written work is being done. 

2. Counting to secure speed and uniform niovement. The next 
step is to apply the above movement in writing the up and down 
straight line exercises (Numbers 1 and 2) and the oval exercises 

(Numbers 3, 4, 5, 6). In practicing these exercises it is well for 
the teacher to count one for each downward stroke to get the speed 
and movement uniform. Two or three weeks or even a month 
should be devoted to these exercises. Use pencil in the lower 
grades, and pen in upper grades. The time spent will depend 
somewhat on the success the teacher has had in developing the 
free and easy movement required in writing these exercises. When 
these can be written with fair skill in correct position* with correct 
movement, easy words beginning with small letters should be prac- 
ticed. The pupil that can make the straight line and oval exer- 
cises with correct movement, can write such words as: me, mine, 
nine, noon, etc., and others no more difficult. The writing in the 



WRITING 115 

primary grades will naturally be quite large but will become smal- 
ler as the pupils gain in proficiency. 

3. Studying the form of the letters. An exercise to develop 
lateral movement can be practiced very advantageously about this 
time. (Number 7.) During this practice work the teacher should 
illustrate all these movement drills and words on the blackboard 
in order to develop the conception of form. It would be well to 
have the primary pupils write on the blackboard as an aid in de- 
veloping the form in the mind. A brief explanation of the form 
of the letter and how it should be written will also aid materially 
in developing this mental picture. See reading, p. 4. 

4. Use of blackboard. Considerable time should be spent with 
the primary pupils in the writing of figures. Much of this work 
can be done by the pupils on the blackboard copying models writ- 
ten by the teacher. The blackboard work, however, is only an 
aid in developing the conception of form, and does very little good 
in the development of movement or in writing with a pen or pencil. 

5. When to use the pen. Whenever the pupils are able to main- 
tain correct position and have developed enough automatic mus- 
cular action to make the direct slide and oval drills (Numbers 1, 
2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) at considerable speed, coarse pens and ink should 
be used instead of pencils. Pens discourage the employment of 
heavy motion which pencils encourage. It would be well, in the 
first four grades, to teach all the letters of the alphabet, both small 
and capital, so that the pupils can use them in any supplementary 
work that may be desired by the teacher. In teaching the small 
and capital letters, those requiring about the same movement 
should follow each other; that is, 1 should be followed by f, b, h 
and k, each requiring practically the same movement. 

6. Group letter drills. To develop lateral motion, various group 
letter drills should be introduced for frequent practice, the small 
"m" in groups of three or four (Number 8), and the small "o" in 
groups of four or five (Number 9). Words and sentences should 
be practiced quite extensively from now on in this work. 

7. A preliminary movement drill in every writing exercise. The 

first few moments each day at the beginning of the writing period 
should be devoted to some of tlie movement drills. Just as a short 
drill should precede arithmetic or reading, so a short preliminary 
movement drill should precede every writing exercise. 

8. Different results from pupils of various ages. The above line 
of work may be done in each class, It is not too difficult for pri- 
mary pupils, but we must not expect too much of them. If this 
work is given to all pupils, the teacher must be satisfied with cor- 
responding results. In the upper grades, of course, more attention 
should be devoted to sentence and page writing. 



116 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

9. Individual help. Advance little and review much, remember- 
ing that an exercise is valuable only as it is mastered. Supplement 
the practice work with blackboard work, explaining and studying 
the forms of letters, both small and capital. During the practice 
of movement drills, words and sentences, the teacher should give 
special attention to the needs of the individual pupils, passing from 
desk to desk, noting faults and offering suggestions for improve- 
ment. The teacher should see that each pupil always does the 
very best and neatest work of which he is capable and should ac- 
cept nothing short of that. Careless and indifferent practice is 
worse than no practice. The work of the teacher, however, must 
be such that it is a good model. Any carelessness or indifference 
on the part of the teacher will have a like effect on the pupils. 

10. Filing specimens of penmanship. The teacher should re- 
quire each pupil to hand in a page of his best writing at least once 
a month to be filed for reference. Each month the specimen should 
be compared with his previous work to note progress. In the upper 
classes more advanced and specialized work may be done on tho 
various forms of letter writing, and business papers. 



ni. TESTS FOR GRADUATION 

1. The pupil should be able to write legibly, neatly, and rapidly, 
in good form for some considerable time without fatigue. 

2. He should use the forearm movement in all written exercises. 

3. He should be able to point out the excellencies and defects in 
movement and form of letters of other pupils. 

4. He should have formed a taste for good writing material. 



IV. REFERENCES 

Ayres. Scale for measuring handwriting. Russell Sage Founda- 
tion, N. Y. City 

Current methods of teaching handwriting. Elementary school 
teacher, 1912 (Vol. 13) University of Chicago Press 

Freeman. Problems and methods of investigation in handwriting 
Journal of Educational Psychology, 1912. Warwick & York, 
Baltimore 

Thorndilce. Scale for measuring handwriting. Teachers' College. 
Columbia University, N. Y. City 

Thorndiltc. Handwriting. Teachers' College Record, 1910. No. 2 
(Vol. 95) 

Wilson. The handwriting of school children. Elementary School 
Teacher, 1911 (Vol. 11) University of Chicago Press 

Zaner. The Montessori movement as applied to writing. Zaner & 
Bloser Co., Columbus, O. Copies of the pamphlet are furn- 
ished free to superintendents 



ARITHMETIC H' 



ARITHMETIC 



I. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 

1. The primary condition of good work in arithmetic is the mas- 
tery of the fundamental operations to such a degree that children 
will not have to labor over the processes of addition, subtraction, 
multiplication, and division in the solution of problems. Only when 
they have a thorough mastery of these operations can they give 
their entire attention to the reasoning processes involved. To this 
end children should thoroughly memorize the addition, subtraction, 
multiplication, and division tables so that they do not have to resort 
to counting on their fingers and to various other devices made nec- 
essary by the lack of instantaneous knowledge of the combinations. 

2. The teacher must constantly keep in mind that teaching the 
child is of greater importance than teaching the subject. Arith- 
metic should be used as a means to develop the child's powers so 
that he may know how to proceed in the solution of problems involv- 
ing the use of numbers. 

That children differ in their ability to master arithmetic should 
be kept in mind in teaching a class. Some children need more drill 
than others. Some children are able to work more difficult problems 
than others or they are able to work more rapidly. In such cases one 
group may sometimes be taken for special drill while another group 
is given other work. It is not necessary that all children &e equally 
proficent in all phases of school work. All children should master 
the minimum essentials, — those facts, processes, and applications 
which one needs to know and use in'pursuing the ordinary affairs of 
life, but those who have special aptitude for mathematics may, with 
profit, be given extra exercises and problems. For such work special 
recognition should be given in some form. 

3. In all arithmetic work the teacher should be sure that the 
children understand the meaning and application of the terms they 
are using. To aid them in getting accurate ideas, objects should 
be used whenever necessary. When these ohjects have served their 
purpose, their use should 'be discontinued. This is true for all grades 
of ivork. 



118 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

4. A teacher should beware of going to either extreme in the mat- 
ter of helping children with their work. The child should develop 
independence and initiative. Too much help on the part of the 
teacher brings about an attitude of helplessness and dependence. 
On the other hand, if too little help is given, discouragement, and 
even despair, may be the result. 

5. When a new topic is taken up, the knowledge that the child 
already has relating to that topic should be assembled so that it is 
fresh in his mind. This preparatory step does much in building up 
a solid foundation for the new material. Very often the new subject 
is in this way recognized as another phase of a well-known subject 
and is mastered easily and quickly. 

Do not assign exercises for seat work unless the principle underly- 
ing them has been carefully developed in the class. In teaching 
some of the processes it may be necessary to have class teaching 
for several days before problems dealing with that process are as- 
signed for seat work. Also give the children some practice at the 
blackboard to ascertain whether they have mastered the essentials 
of the process. If a large number of the children are not able to 
do correctly the work assigned, it is evident that somewhere there 
has been insufficient or ineffective teaching. It is a mistake under 
such conditions to give additional seat work of the same kind be- 
fore the causes for the failure have been discovered and the diffi- 
culties removed. 

What has been said of seat work is equally true of home work. 
As a rule very little arithmetic need 6e assigned for home work out- 
side of securing data for practical problems. The assignment of In- 
volved difficult problems for home work, such work often neces- 
sitating long written explanations, is a violation of the principle of 
hygiene and does much to bring^ school work into disrepute among 
practical people. 

6. In arithmetic, as in other subjects, the teacher should plan the 
work in such a manner that the pupil in his study forms good habits. 
Here again is seen the importance of proper assignment, — that is, 
giving the child for practice, processes with which he is familiar. 
Accuracy, in thought and computation, neatness in written work, an- 
a reasonable speed in doing the work are habits which arithmetic 
can particularly foster. In order that these habits may be formed 
the work should at all times be kept within the child's comprehen- 
sion and ability. 

7. Arithmetical knowledge should be utilized whenever possible in 
other subjects, such as geography, civics, sanitation, history, etc. 

8. Except in purely mechanical exercises the arithmetic work 
should be, as far as possible, related to or based upon actual con- 
ditions in life. In our day when there is so much useful and vital 



ARITHMETIC 113 

information to be had, the schools should eliminate the non-essen- 
tials and give the children those things which will be of greatest 
service to them. These practical life problems should form the basis 
for the arithmetic work in all the grades. 

The application of the principles of arithmetic to everyday affairs 
of life is the most important part of the work. If this phase of the 
work is well done it reacts favorably on the pure arithmetic work it- 
self. Besides, unapplied arithmetic is easily forgotten. 

As a part of the regular arithmetic work throughout the whole 
course the children should be trained in making actual measure- 
ments and computing results from data obtained. They should also 
be trained in securing from textbooks, library books, or other 
sources, information necessary to the solution of problems. Prac- 
tice should be given in reading market reports. A price list of 
coinm^n commodities may be kept on the blackboard or bulletin 
board and revised by the pupils. In making original problems such 
data should be used. 

Exercises in estimating distances, areas, volumes and weights 
should be given, such estimates to be verified by actual measure- 
ments. This practice gives the children an excellent training in 
judgment and develops skill in handling real situations. 

9. Much of the success of the arithmetic work depends upon in- 
telligent review. Many teachers leave a subject before it is thor- 
oughly mastered and do not touch upon it again for some time. 
When they do return to it, the pupils give little evidence of having 
studied it. After a subject has been fairly mastered, review prob- 
lems should be given from time to time. In this way not only is 
the subject kept fresh in mind but it is often seen in relation to 
other subjects studied and a greater mastery is thus secured. 

At the beginning of a school year a thorough review should al- 
ways be given of all the work that has been gone over. Individua) 
weaknesses as well as class defects should be noted and additional 
practice and drill given wherever needed. It is useless to do ad- 
vanced work if there are serious weaknesses in the work that is 
supposed to have been finished. Such a review should not consist 
in merely working the same problems that they Tiad the year be- 
fore, but other exercises should be given for the reason that this 
work is also to be used as a basis for teaching new topics. Some 
problems may be obtained from other textbooks. Original problems 
are especially good for review purposes. It is a good idea to have 
the children formulate problems for thrir classmates to solve. 

10. Much of the success of the arithmetic work depends upon the 
teacher's ability to make the work real to the pupils. Just as dra- 
matization is of value in language work so "acting out" business 
transactions helps to give the children clear and definite ideas 
regarding business practices. Such exercises also show to the chil- 



120 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

dren, the practical value of arithmetic. In the primary classes oc- 
casional exercises may be planned in which members of the class 
buy and sell smalf articles, paying for the same, making change, 
etc. In the upper classes a part of the year may profitably be given 
to business practice on a larger scale in which commercial papers 
of various kinds are handled in connection with the transactions. 
In this practice the children should also be taught to keep simple 
accounts, 

11. Much attention should be given to mental or oral arithmetic 
in the upper classes. Practically every arithmetic recitation should 
be opened with an oral exercise. Some authorities say that one- 
third of the recitation is not too much to assign to it. (Kendall & 
Mirick.) In another book (McClellan & Ames) we find the follow- 
ing: "Mental arithmetic is the life and soul of rational method. It is 
firmly held that, compared with written arithmetic alone, mental 
arithmetic, if systematically taught, will produce at least twice the 
knowledge and twice the power in a given time." 

By mental arithmetic is understood all work in which computation 
is not made with a pencil. It includes the rapid reading and inter- 
pretation of problems and the solution of problems without figures, 
as well as oral computation. 

Pupils need to be given practice in the intelligent reading of prob- 
lems. "Many lessons should be given in all grades in which many 
problems are studied * * * for practice in interpretation 
alone." — Kendall & Mirick. 

12. Skill in arithmetic involves more than rapidity in computation. 
Besides this mechanical skill we should work for skill in the interpre- 
tation of problems and skill in the application of the processes and 
principles to the everyday affairs of life. This three-fold skill is 
essential to the mastery of the subject. (See Kendall & Mirick, pr 
168-186.) 

13. Drills, to produce the best results, should be varied and in- 
telligent. They should be snappy and should not be unduly pro- 
longed. A few minutes of intensive drill is sufficient as it is a men- 
tal strain and soon, produces fatigue. Some of the most common 
and valuable forms of drill are the following: 

a. Mental arithmetic. Both abstract and concrete exercises 
should be given. 

b. Using the blackboard in drilling on the addition and mul- 
tiplication tables, aliquot parts, percentage equivalents, fracti^- 
reductions, etc. Pupils give results as the teacher or one of the 
class points to the combinations. There are various modifications of 
these drills. 

c. Perception or "flash" cards. Manila cards of convenient size 
containing number facts, such as combination?^, ali'^"'^*^ nirt'?. denom- 
inate number facts, etc., are flashed before the pupils. Por study 



ARITHMETIC 121 

purposes it is well to have the pupils use cards on which the answers 
are given. This prevents guessing and counting to get the answer. 

d. Plays and games of various kinds, such as are usually sug- 
gested in primary arithmetics, can be used to give the smaller chil- 
dren facility in adding, multiplying, etc. In these exercises care 
should be taken that the play feature and the mechanism of the 
game do not crowd out the "arithmetic". The purpose of the 
work, which is instant recognition of the number fact, should ever 
be kept in mind. 

e. There are many somewhat spectacular devices such as fish- 
pond, picking apples from trees, climbing ladders, etc. These should 
be used very little, as they often introduce elements which are dis- 
tracting and add nothing of real value to the drill. 

f. Playing dominoes is an excellent practice to develop skill in 
addition and the game might well be encouraged for the home. The 
children can make a set out of cardboard and this work in itself has 
an educational value. 

g. The Courtis Tests, Thompsons Essentials, and the Stude- 
baker Economy Practice Exercises are helpful, not only in enabling 
teachers to test their classes and the children to test their own prog- 
ress, but they indicate to both teacher and pupils what facts need 
further drill. 

The Courtis Tests are published by Dr. S. A. Courtis, Detroit, 
Mich., Thompson's Minimum Essentials by Ginn & Co., Chicago, and 
Studebaker's Practice Exercises by Scott, Forsman & Co., Chicago. 
Other tests which may be used are: Passett's Standardized Num- 
ber Tests published by Milton Bradley Co., Springfield, Mass., and 
Masons Self-Keyed Number Cards published by J. L. Hammet Co., 
Boston, Mass. 

14. The tests and exercises introduce the time element, which is 
a valuable feature and should be incorporated into arithmetic work 
at all stages. 

If the school is in possession of a hektograph, drill sheets of va- 
rious kinds can easily be made. Pupils may help in making copies 
after the teacher has prepared the original draft. The value of the 
rapid work that can be done in the class by means of these sheets 
is evident. 

Do not spend time drilling children on what they know. Drill on 
facts tnat need it. 

15. It might be observed that there is a point of efficiency l)eyona 
wJiich it is not profitable to go in the matter of speed. In this work 
the teacher must use judgment and not neglect some branch of 
school work, as, for instance, language, to develop an extraordinary 
skill in some phases of arithmetic. 

It should be kept in mind also that it is unwise to subject nervous 
children to the excessive strain resulting from intensive contest 
work. A great advantage of the tests suggested is that each child 



122 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

can measure his own progress, rather than try to compare himself 
with others who may not be in his class. 

16. In order to develop the highest possible skill in the mechan- 
ical phase of arithmetic the children should be trained to take ad- 
vantage of methods that will give the result most economically. 
Short methods, such as using aliquot parts, should be introduced and 
drilled upon whenever they are of ad^'antage in calculation. The 
shorter and simpler the calculation, the more likely the result is to 
be correct. 

17. Pupils should be trained in the orderly arrangement of their 
written work but it should not be overdone by requiring an undue 
amount of lengthy explanation and analysis. They should be trained 
to write neat figures and to arrange numbers neatly in columns. 
The writing of numbers should be drilled upon in the penmanship 
exercise and applied in all the written work of the school. 

18. The blackboard should be utilized to its fullest extent. 
Classes should frequently be ,sent to the board for drill. The ex- 
ercises to be given should be carefully prepared so that they will be 
adapted to the ability of the children. One great value of this work 
is that the teacher can discover at a glance individual weaknesses, 
and thus determine what pupils need extra help. 

It is usually a mistake to stop in the midst of a blackboard exer- 
cise of this kind to teach a pupil who may need additional atten- 
tion. The result of such a procedure is that some of the children 
are standing at the board without work and frequently cause trou- 
ble in discipline. All the pupils should be kept busy working prob- 
lems until the exercise is over. The slow members should not de- 
termine the rate of speed for the rest of the class. Those who work 
rapidly should be given new problems as soon as they have finished. 
Each pupil should, as far as possible, be kept fully occupied at the 
rate of which he is capable. 

The following .suggestion is given regarding the management or 
the blackboard drill when classes are large. Number the pupils 1, 
2, — 1, 2, — around the class. Have two sets of examples on the 
board, set number 1, and set number 2. Have all pupils who are 
numbered one work the first example in ,set one, and all pupils num- 
bered two work the first example in set twp. When these are fin- 
ished, the teacher, who has the correct answers on a card, nods her 
head to the pupil who has finished the example correctly. He erases 
and starts another. Soon the quick pupils are on the third exam- 
ples and the slow ones may still be on the first. Every one is work- 
ing at his greatest speed. As the examples are on the board the 
teacher does no talking. It is a quiet, inspiring atmosphere in which 
much is accomplished. 

All arithmetic classes should be given blackboard drills. 



ARITHMETIC 123 

19. In a country school the children can usually be classified for 
their arithmetic into four groups, not including the beginners who 
do their number work in connection with the other school exercises. 
In each of these groups there may be rapid and slow workers, neces- 
sitating a slight differentiation in the work of different individuals. 
In such cases the slow pupils may be required to do only the min- 
imum amount of work while the rapid ones may be given additional 
problems. It may even be possible for the latter in some instances 
to do some advanced work, thus enabling them to catch up to the 
class above them. This should not be done at the expense of thor- 
oughness but it sometimes happens that some children because of 
irregular attendance fall behind the others, and it is not right to 
keep back those who are regular in attendance and able to advance. 

20. A common fault in arithmetic is that children are advanced 
too fast. It is not economical to promote pupils faster than they can 
do the work well. When they get into work that is beyond their 
abilities they lose interest and often become discouraged. As long 
as they are able to do their work well they enjoy it. It is not the 
number of pages covered in the book that should be the criterion of 
progress, but, rather the increase in power to attack problems wheth- 
er these are taken from the textbook or from the experiences of 
life. It is possible for children to be able to work book problems 
and get book answers and yet not have a mastery of the subject. 

ai. It is absolutely necessary to do work outside of the textbook 
if arithmetic is to be mastered as an applied subject. A good up-to- 
date textbook has a number of problems, also discussions, which 
are helpful in showing how arithmetic can be applied to everyday 
affairs of life, but these can never take the place of the actual meas- 
urements which the pupil must make in order to apply the work to 
the real conditions in the community. A number of book problems 
may therefore be omitted even in the up-to-date texts and in their 
place some actual problems from life substituted. 

It is a good plan to have one or two supplementary textbooks in 
arithmetic for reference^ and additional problems. 

In institutions training teachers some attention should be given 
to familiarizing the teachers with the textbooks in use in the schools 
they are likely to teach. 

22. The following topics should be omitted entirely from the 
arithmetic course and superintendents should ask no examination 
questions embodying them. 

Greatest common divisor and least common multiple; troy weight, 
apothecaries' weight and fluid measure; surveyor's linear and square 
measures; paper measure; long ton table; duodecimals; addition, 
subtraction, multiplication and division of compound numbers; an- 
nual interest; true discount; partnership; compound proportion; 
cube root; equation of payments; series; alligation; longitude and 
time (taken up briefly in geography). 



124 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

The following topics should be discussed briefly for the informa- 
tion they contain but it is not necessary to work many of the prob- 
lems coming under them: 

Compound interest (in connection with savings accounts; call 
attention to tables); partial payments; stocks and bonds; duties; 
bank discount; exchange (sending money to distant points). 

The following topics may be taken up briefly if time permits, and 
they may also be given as extra work cO pupils who are able to do 
additional work: 

Square root; metric system; involved problems in interest. 

In commission: the first case alone should be required. The other 
cases may be used as optional work. 

In adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing fractions, de- 
nominators should not exceed 16. Problems with larger denomi- 
nators should not be required and should be assigned only as spe- 
cial work to those who find arithmetic work specially easy or to 
those who have become skilful in handling fractions having small 
denominators. The same is true with problems containing decimals 
having more than four places. 

Complex fractions as a subject should be omitted, only bringing 
it in if it is necessary in order to solve any practical problems, or 
in the handling of percentage. 

23. The following course of study should be followed quite 
closely in the order that it is given but it must not be understood 
that each class will necessarily finish the work outlined for a grade 
at the end of the year. The important thing is to do the work well 
and let the children make progress as rapidly as they can. At the 
close of a school year a class may have finished about half of the 
work of the fifth grade. The teacher should leave a report showing 
the work done and then the next teacher, after a thorough review 
at the beginning of the next year, proceeds with the balance of 
the work outlined for the fifth grade. After the completion of the 
work outlined for the fifth year the class begins the work of the- 
sixth grade. 

24. Another possible fiexibility should be noted. In a country 
school it often happens that a child brings a problem in which he 
is especially interested to school because of some home work he is 
doing. It may be that this work is outlined in a part of the course 
considerably ahead of where he is. If the problem is within his 
grasp intellectually he should be shown how to work it. For in- 
stance, a boy in the fifth grade may bring in a problem in milk test- 
ing. It is entirely possible to teach him this lesson if he really is 
going to use it. The needs of the community should continually be^ 
kept in mind in administering the school course. 



ARITHMETIC 125 

II. COURSE OF STUDY 
Fiist Year 

No formal work in numbers should be done with children the first 
year they are in school, and no regular period for work should be as- 
signed. (An exception might be made in the case of a child who is 
sufficiently mature — who has perhaps had some start at home be- 
fore entering school and who is therefore able to make greater 
progress in all school work). Considerable informal work in num- 
bers can be done incidentally in connection with other school work, 
especially in conversational exercises and in games. The pupils 
may begin to use the foot rule and yard stick in measuring. Count- 
ing will come in naturally and with this will come the writing of 
numbers on the blackboard. It may be necessary to use objects to 
develop the idea of number and some of the seat work should in- 
clude the grouping of things. The teacher may introduce any ma- 
t'^rial which has number significance if such introduction comes in a 
natural way and in connection with the other school work. The 
teaching of the tables should be left for the second year, so that the 
greatest possible stress may be placed upon reading and language. 

Second Year 

1. Measurements. The foot rule, yard stick, pint, quart, gallon, 
peck and bushel. The children themselves should make the meas- 
urements. Begin to train them in estimating short distances and 
then testing by actual measurement. 

2. Exercises in buying and selling (playing store) , making change, 
telling time, and any other activities which may be introduced to 
show the children in a concrete way the uses of arithmetic. 

3. The addition and subtraction tables. These tables should be 
taught together, and should be thoroughly memorized. 

4. Subtraction of one number from another in which each order 
of the subtrahend is less than the corresponding order of the min- 
uend. 

5. Counting by lO's, 5's, and 2's to 100. 

6. Counting by 3's and 4's to 50 and back. 

7. Reading and writing numbers to 1000. Do not allow the for- 
mation of incorrect habits in reading numbers. Also be careful to 
have the children say "naught" when the figure "0" is mentioned. 

8. Multiplication tables, with the corresponding division and fac- 
toring tables may be begun. Not more than two tables should be 
attempted. 



126 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

9. Signs. Names and uses of +, — , X, -^, =, 

10. Easy oral problems based upon the number facts mastered. 
These problems should be based upon the children's experiences. 

11. Fractional parts of numbers introduced (i^ of a number and 
Vr of a number) in connection with the multiplication table. 

12. Blackboard drills in writing and adding numbers. 

13. Time test on the 45 combinations the latter part of the year. 
Have pupils note their own improvement and keep record of it. 

14. No textbook should be used by the pupils and very little writ- 
ten work should be required at this stage. Care should be taken in 
making assignment for seat work that children do not acquire bad 
habits, such as counting on their fingers. 

Third Year 

1. Review. A careful review of all the work outlined in second 
year. Special drill and practice given wherever needed. 

2. Simple one-step problems relating to the children's experiences. 
Some of these should be problems based upon measurements and 
data secured by the pupils themselves. When these measurements 
are used in computation fractions are dropped. Children should be- 
come familiar through use with the following: Inch, foot, yard, pint, 
quart, gallon, peck, bushel, pound, dozen. Coins, the clock, and the 
calendar can be used as material for additional exercises in relating 
number work to life. Exercises in buying and selling, etc., contin- 
ued. (See No. 2 in Second year). 

3. Measurements. Continue to give children practice in estimat- 
ing measurements and testing for accuracy. 

4. Reading and writing numbers to lO.OOX Children should be 
skillful in this work which includes pointing off the periods and 
naming the orders. Note from textbook exercises where "and" is 
to be used in reading numbers. 

5. U. S. Money. Reading and writing numbers representing dol- 
lars and cents. 

6. Column addition. All pupils in the class should be able to add 
a short column independently and quickly before much other work 
is attempted at this stage. See p. 135. 

7. Cross addition. Practice should be given in adding horizon- 
tally as well as vertically. Add the following exercises both ways, 
then add vertical and horizontal sums; final sums should be equal 
if work is correct. 

6 4 3 8 

3 7 9 9 

9 5 7 1 

5 8 5 6 



ARITHMETIC 127 

8. Subtraction of one number from another. 

9. Multiplication tables with the corresponding division and fac- 
toring tables continued as far as they can be thoroughly learned and 
used. Usually these tables can be completed in one year but in 
case they cannot be learned well it is best to do the work thoroughly 
as far as it is attempted. When a product is learned teach the two 
arrangements of factors; thus, 2X4z=8; 4X2=8. Call attention to 
the old or known combinations in each new table. Also introduce 
zero as a factor; thus 4X0=0; 0X3=0. 

10. Fractional parts of numbers learned in connection with the 
multiplication table; as Yq of 54. 

11. Multiplication as far as the tables have been mastered; also 
short divisions with the same restrictions. 

12. Original problems by the pupils. 

13. Blackboard drills in writing numbers, addition, subtraction, 
multiplication and short division. 

14. Time tests on work in addition and multiplication. 

Fourth Year 

1. A careful review of all the work outlined in the previous years, 
Multiplication and division tables completed, including the ll's and 
12's. Children trained to use these as unit numbers when multiply- 
ing and dividing. 

2. Units of length and area. Rod, mile, square inch, square foot, 
square yard. Give children clear ideas of these units by having 
them make actual measurements. In case of the mile have them 
find a specific distance in the neighborhood of the school. 

3. Practice in estimating distance, area, and capacity, verified by 
accurate measurement. Practice in measuring out-door distances by 
pacing. 

See also course of study in geography, third and fourth years, top- 
ics 17 and 18. 

4. Practice in addition and subtraction continued, Give some 
work in horizontal addition with larger numbers. 

5. Reading and writing numbers to 1,000,000. 

6. Long division. 

7. Problems involving U. S. Money. 

8. Tw6-step concrete problems introduced. 

9. Omit book problems that are too difficult. 

10. Concrete oral work in fractions. No written work. 



128 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

11. Original problems. Practice on the part of the children in 
making original problems and in working problems using data which 
they themselves have secured. These data may be measurements, 
current prices or any other facts that may be used as a basis for 
computation. 

12. Mental arithmetic. Give mental arithmetic exercises daily. 
13. Short method of multiplying by 10, 100, and 1000. 

14. Blackboard drill continued. 

15. Time tests to measure progress of pupils continued. Records 
kept by pupils. 

Fifth Year 

1. Review. A careful and thorough review of all work that has 
been done in the preceding years. Special drill and practice given 
wherever needed. Some of the children will need more of this drill 
than others, and it may be well to section the class occasionally in 
order to give additional practice to those who need it while supple- 
mentary work is given to others. 

2. Factoring. Not only should this subject be taught thoroughly 
bu it should be used in shortening processes during the remainder of 
the course. 

Omit greatest common divisor and least common multiple as given 
in the textbook but give much practice to get children skillful in 
such work as the following: 

a. What is the largest number that will divide both 24 and 32? 

b. What is the smallest number that will exactly contain 8, 12, 
and 16? 

Note: Since the purpose of this work is to prepare them for work 
in fractions, and since the work in that subject in th's and the next 
grade should be restricted to work Avith fractions whose denomina- 
tors do not exceed 16, this drill must be principally on small numbers. 
It will be necessary under a, however, to include some larger 
numbers, as 48, 72 and 96, as it happens in computation that the sum 
obtained by adding fractions with small denominators is a fraction 
whose terms are large numbers. This work should be done by in- 
spection. 

3. Cancellation. This subject should not be taught merely for 
its own sake but children should be given much practice in applying 
it in the solution of problems. They should be given practice in in- 
dicating their work in concrete problems involving multiplication 
and division and thus throw them into form for cancellation. This 
should not be done, however, until they understand the underlying 
principles of the work thoroughly and can give the reasons for the 
different steps taken. 

Note: Train children to see that in some cases, as the following, 
cancellation lengthens the process instead of shortening it: 
63x85 52x95 728x8 

100 10 500 



ARITHMETIC 12 9 

4. Use of terms — sum, difference, product, quotient, subtrahend, 
minuend, multiplicand, multiplier, divisor, dividend, and remainder. 
The mere definitions are not so important as the proper use of these 
terms in talking about the different "processes. 

5. Continued practice in the reading and writing of numbers, in- 
cluding those representing United States money. 

6. Continued drill on the four fundamental operations. 

7. Practice in multiplying and dividing by 10, 100 and 1000 
using the short process; also in multiplying and dividing by 25. 

8. Problems brought in by pupils based upon data obtained 
from measurements, current prices, and other facts that are usable 
as material for arithmetic work. 

9. Measurements continued. Have children measure out a 
square rod and an acre. Practice in measuring plots of land and de- 
termining area. Triangles and rectangles. Wood measure with di- 
mensions of a cord of wood. 

10. Mental arithmetic problems daily. 

11. The following aliquot parts of a dollar learned: 

1/2, V^, %, 1/3, %, Vs, 1/5, 1/10 

12. Cash accounts. Train children to keep cash accounts show- 
ing receipts and disbursements. 

13. Concrete oral work in fractions continued. By means of 
objects show the reduction from lower to higher terms, from higher 
to lower terms, from improper fractions to whole or mixed numbers 
and from Avhole or mixed numbers to improper fractions. Give 
much drill in this reduction, adapting the devices that were used for 
practice in the four fundamental operations. Do not be too anxious 
to get the children into written work in fractions. Their mastery of 
the subjects depends largely upon the thoroughness of the pre- 
liminary oral work. 

14. Training in the reading and interpretation of concrete prob- 
lems in the textbook; also training in the analysis and explanation 
of concrete problems. Much of this work should be done with prob- 
lems containing integers before fractions are taken up as a subject. 
Train the children in the use of language. Do not overdo this work 
by adhering slavishly to prescribed forms but be sure that the child 
is thinking clearly and that he expresses his thought well. 

Pupils should also be trained to use the blackboard for purposes of 
illustration such as drawing diagrams representing differGjitly shaped 
fields, etc. 

9— -S. M, 



130 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

15. Business papers. Introduction of bills, receipts and checks. 
Practice in buying and selling different commodities, rendering bills 
of same, giving receipts, and paying by check. Bank deposits. 

16. Fr.ictions. Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division 
of fractions with denominators not exceeding 16. Much oral work 
both in the processes and in concrete problems. Work for skill in 
the handling of easy fractions. Omi^ book exercises having large 
denominators and also complex problems, especially those dealing 
with facts outside of the children's experience. 

Sufficient oral drill in adding two fractional units so that the chil- 
dren can give instantly combinations like the following: 

1/4— Vs; y2— Vs; 1/4—1/5; 1/2—1/6. etc. 

17. Blackboards. Continue use of the blackboard for class drill. 

18. Time tests continued and records kept. 

19. Short methods introduced whenever advisable and profitable. 

Sixth Year 

1. Review of all work outlined in previous years. Special drill 
and practice wherever needed. Especially review fractions thor- 
oughly. Speed test in number work continued. 

2. Continued practice in the four fundamental operations, espe- 
cially addition. Practice in horizontal addition and subtraction. Call 
attention to the creamery and cheese factory milk sheet where the 
two additions must tally. 

3. Concrete problems similar to those given in previous years, 
laying special emphasis upon the use of fractional numbers. 

4. Actual measurements bringing in fractional numbers. Where 
in previous grades fractional parts were dropped, now they should be 
retained and used in computation. 

5. Rendering bills in which fractional numbers are used. 

6. Mental arithmetic continued. 

7. Teaching of decimals, showing the relation to common frac- 
tions. United States money used as a foundation for teaching this 
subject. Limit work in this grade to four decimal places. Practice 
in reading and writing decimals. Reduction of common fractions to 
decimals and decimals to common fractions. Decimal equivalents of 
the most used common fractions thoroughly memorized. (Fractions 
having denominators 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10.) 

Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of decimals. 



ARITHMETIC 131 

8. Concrete problems involving the use of decimals. 

9. Denominate numbers. As many of the following tables as 
can be finished with reasonable thoroughness with problems based 
upon them: Linear, surface, and solid measures; dry and liquid 
measures; measures of weight (avoirdupois), time, and value. 

Problems based upon the following tables should be omitted but it 
may be well for the teacher to discuss with the pupils what the 
tables are used for, why they have been put in the textbook and that 
most of them are of value only to those who are engaged in some 
specialized work: Troy and apothecaries' weight; surveyor's long 
and square measures; circular measure; paper measure; long ton 
table; foreign money. 

Problems in carpeting may be omitted. 

Important facts bearing upon farm interests should be taught. The 
most important are the following: 

60 pounds in a bushel of wheat, clover seed, potatoes or peas. 

5 6 pounds in a bushel of shelled co>^n or rye. 

48 pounds in a bushel of barley. 

45 pounds in a bushel of timothy seed. 

32 pounds in a bushel or oats. 
196 pounds in a barrel of flour. 
1% cu. ft. (2150.4 cu. in.) in a bushel. 
231 cu. in. In a gallon (about 7 1^ gallons to the cu. ft. 
A cubic foot of water weighs 62^/^ pounds. 

Omit exercises from the book in addition, subtraction, multiplication 
and division of denominate numbers. 

10. Concrete problems made by pupils. 

11. Some practice in soiling problems without figures. 

12. Short methods. Train children to use short methods where 
it is advantageous to do so. 

13. Cash accounts. Train children in keeping cash accounts 
showing receipts and disbursements. 

14. Blackboard exercises continued. 



Seventh Year 

1. A careful review of work of previous years with special drill 
and practice wherever needed. Speed tests continued throughout the 
year. 

2. Denominate numbers completed. 

3. Percentage. See p. 142. 

4. Application of percentage. Problems in milk testing, &eea 
testing, simple interest, commission (first case only), commercial dis- 



13 2 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

count, profit and loss, taxes. (Some of these may be left until the next 
year.) ■"' : ' . M -1*11 

5. Measurements. Land survey. Terms taught, — base line, 
fourth principal meridian, range, township, section, correction line. 
Drawings used. Application of land survey to actual division of land 
in the community. Considerable practice in land description. This 
work should be correlated with the work in civics. 

Capacity of bins, cisterns, tanks, silos, corn cribs, hay mows, etc. 
(rectangular solids, cylinders.) Problems related to farm activities 
and conditions. Actual measurements made at the homes of the 
children and data brought to school. Textbook problems are not 
sufficient though they may be used for guidance and to some extent 
for practice. By making actual measurements and computing from 
data secured the pupil gets more than arithmetical knowledge and 
skill; he gets experience in adapting arithmetic to actual conditions. 
Use cancellation in these problems wherever possible. 

6. Problems mthout figures. 

7. Mental arithmetic exercises. 

8. Much piactice in approximating results both in written prob- 
lems in the textbook and in actual situations. 

9. Practice in reading and interpreting problems, in the orderly 
arrangement of written work and in the explanation and analyses of 
problems. 

10. Blackboard drill. 



Eighth Year 

1. Review of work previously outlined with drill and practice 
given wherever needed to insure 

a. Accuracy and reasonable speed in the four fundamentals, es- 
pecially addition 

b. Skill in measurements to secure data 

c. Ability to ascertain prices of commodities; also ability to secure 
other information necessary to the proper solution of problems 

d. Skill in the manipulation of easy fractions and decimals when 
these are needed in the solution of problems 

e. Ability to solve orally ordinary problems in which small numbers 
are used and which do not involve too many steps in their solution 

f. Ability to interpret problems and approximate the results 

g. Ability to formulate original problems illustrating principles 
and processes 

h. Ability to write and use intelligently the business forms thus 
far studied and 



ARITHMETIC 133 

i. Ability to use the knowledge of percentage in the various appli- 
cations studied. 

Pupils should be encouraged to test themselves in the mastery of pre- 
ceding work. 

2. Practical short methods continued 

a. Addition by grouping 

b. Use of alliquot parts wherever advantageous 

c. Use of cancellation wherever advantageous 

d. Multiplying and dividing by 25, 125, 3^%, 121/4 

e. Problems in hay, lumber, interest, land, bins, silos 

3. Applications of percentage conipleted (See 4 Seventh year). 
Customs and duties should be taken up in connection with the study of 
U. S. Civil Government. 

The following subjets should be taken up in a limited way only, 
following the suggestions given on the teaching of special topics: par- 
tial payments, bank discount, exchange, stocks and bonds, insurance, 
compound interest (with savings banks accounts). Omit entirely true 
discount, annual interest. 

4. Farm (or industrial) problems of any nature which may 
profitably be worked in the class. These will vary in different localities. 

5. Measurements, etc. Building problems. In studying this 
topic have the children learn from observation and inquiry different 
kinds of lumber as to use, quality, dimensions and current prices. See 
special discussion of this subject given on p. 153. 

Any of the practical measurements which may be used introduced as 
material for calculation. 

6. Meaning of ratio and proportion with special reference to 
their application in feeding rations, spray mixtures, dimensions of rec- 
tangular fields, etc. 

7. Personal accounts and farm accounts. See special suggestions 
on p. 125. 

8. Additional topics. If the pupils have mastered thoroughly the 
work outlined thus far and there is time for additional work the follow- 
ing may be taken up: 

(a) Square root. Teach only the process. Give problmes to 
show the application: Measure the length and the width of the 
schoolroom. Calculate the distance from one corner to the corner 
diagonally opposite. Then measure the diagonal to see how the re- 
sult agrees with the measurement. 

How many square rods in an acre? How many spuare feet? If you 
wish to lay out an acre in the form of a square, what will be the length 
of the sides of the square? 

(b) Metric systems. See page 154. 

(c) Business practice. See pages 155-158. 



134 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



III. SUGGESTIONS WITH REFERENCE TO TEACHING 
SPECIAL TOPICS 

1. Addition 

a. Step 1. The addition table. 

111111111222222 223333333 

12345678923456789 3 456789 



44444455555 6 666777889 
456789567896789 78 9 899 



In teaching the table give short advance lessons, — two or three com- 
binations a week — and drill so thoroughly on all previously learned 
combinations that it is impossible to forget them. At the rate of two 
new addition facts a week, the table can be mastered in less than six 
months. 

Since the subtraction table is based upon the addition tabjle the proper 
time to learn an element in the subtraction table is at the time the 
addition combination, from which it is derived, is learned. When 5 is 
learned, +3 

8 8 — 

—5 and —3 should be learned. 

Note: There are two methods used in subtraction: the "taking 
away" method, and the "Austrian" or "making change" method. Skill 
is what the teacher should work for whichever method is selected. 
6 

A combination as 5 is known only when the pupil upon seeing it thinks 

11 

"eleven" just as, if properly taught in reading he thinks of an apple 
when he sees the word. The symbols 6 and 5 should not enter into con- 
sciousness any more than the letters of the word apple. The idea eleven 
in the one instance is wanted and the idea apple in the other. 

To prevent the children from acquiring the habit of counting when 
they are learning the combinations it may be helpful to use perception 
cards on which the combinations are given with the answers on one 
side and without the answers on the other. 

b. Step 2. The addition at sight of a number of two digits to 
a number of one digit; as, 

23 87 49 

4 5 6 etc. 



ARITHMETIC 135 

Teach first the unit figure. Pupils must be drilled until the unit 
figure is the first thing that comes to mind when two digits are pre- 

7 
sented for addition. For instance when the child sees +8, he thinks 

57 77 97 — 

5 as the unit figure in the sum. If it be 8, 8, or 8, he thinks 5 

just the same, always remembering that the result ends in 5. 

In teaching the unit figure two distinct steps should be followed: 
(1) Combinations of single digits; as, 

7 9 8 8 9 4 9 

8 5 3 5 6 7 8 etc. 



Long lists of combinations like these should be placed upon the 
blackboard and the pupil should be drilled in naming the unit figure 
instead of the whole result. Direct the child to take the pointer and 
proceed from left to right saying: 5, 4, 1, 3, 5, 1, 7. This exercise 
should be continued until the child can call the unit figures of single 
combinations rapidly. 

(2) Combinations of a number containing two digits with a num- 
ber containing one digit; as 

76 88 49 63 75 45 
9 5 8 9 6 7 etc. 



The child should first be led to see that the unit figure is not affected 
because of the fact that one of the numbers contains two digits. 
Direct the child to take the pointer and proceed from left to right 
saying: 5, 3, 7, 2, 1, 2, etc. Long lists of numbers should be given 
and the children drilled until they can name the unit figures rapidly. 
Then with the same figures the child should name the unit figures 
and the result: 5—85, 3—93, 7—57, 2—72, 1—81, 2—52. After they 
have become skillful in this they should with the same numbers name 
the results only: 85, 93, 57, 72, 81, 52. 

c. Step 3. The addition of a column of digits: 

7 

8 

9 

6 

5 
-8 



This is really a series of applications of steps 1 and 2. 

First have the children name the unit figures from the bottom up: 
3, 9, 8, 6, 3. Then have them name the unit figures with results: 
3-13, 9-19, 8-28, 6-36, 3-43. Finally have them give the results only: 
13, 19, 28, 36, 43. 



13 6 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

Continue this drill until the children can add columns correctly and 
rapidly. 

d. Step 4. The addition of two or more columns. 

e. Step 5. Rapid addition by the grouping of digits. Some of 
this work may be profitaby taken up with pupils in the advanced 
classes. 

The work can be accelerated by acquiring skill in recognition at 
sight of the sum of any number of two digits and any number from 
10 to 18; as 

47 36 93 82 
+ 15, 12, 18, 17, etc. 

This is a double application of the addition table. If step 2 of addi- 
tion and this step have been mastered, ^ny column of figures can 8 
be added at nearly a double rate of speed by adding two figures 7 
at a time. If the addition table is known, the sum of any two 6 
adjacent figures will be recognized at sight, then one has but to 9 
combine these sums by Steps 2 and 5; as in the column at the 3 
right; adding down, 15, 30, 37, 47, 61, 70; or adding up, 15, 26, 4 
37, 49, 62, 70. 7 

Drill for quick recognition of Step 5 and apply the skill ac- 3 
quired in the addition of columns. Accept no imperfect answer. 8 
Time the pupils in adding several columns of figures. Record 6 
results of a test; one week later give a similar test to see what 9 
progress has been made. Frequent drills in addition throughout 
the upper grades will tend to confirm the habit of good addition. 

The children's attention may also be called to other possibilities in 
grouping. The work that can be done, however, depends upon the 
training the children have had from the beginning and also upon the 
ability of the teacher. An undue amount of attention and time should 
not be given so that other work is slighted. 

Much practice in addition should be given to enable children to add 
at a glance, numbers like the following: 

32 56 47 27 25 27 
44 29 35 29 35 95 



2, Division 

a. Step 1. The division table. 

The combinations of the division table can be taught from the 
corresponding combinations of the multiplication table. These two 
tables are complements of each other and should be taught together, 
as were the addition and subtraction tables. These tables should be 
thoroughly memorized. 

When the pupil has learned a given combination of the multiplica- 
tion table, he should be trained to recognize the two factors from the 
product; as, 32 has for its factors 4 and 8; 36 equals 4X9, 6X6, or 
3X12; 42 equals 6X7, etc. These are elements of a factoring table. 



ARITHMETIC 137 

The three tables, multiplication, division and factoring, may each be 
used as a drill upon the others. 

b. Step 2. The division of any number by a digit, viz.: "Short 
Division." 

(1) When the application of the division table is exact; as, 842 
divided by 2; 993 divided by 3; 1284 divided by 4. 

The pupils simply need to see the successive applications of the 
division table. Show them what to do and drill for skill. 

(2) When some of the applications of the division table are 
not exact; as, 

8)378; 6)4237; 4)5368. 
(a) Before taking this step, drill upon such modifications of 
the division table as 42-^8, 17-f-5, 23-^4, 48^7, etc., until the 
pupils are reasonably expert. 

(b) The pupils simply need to be shown that they must 
apply the division table, mentally prefix the remainder to the next 
figure, and again apply the division table, repeating the process to the 
end of the division; as, 8 is contained in 37, 4 times with 5 remain- 
der; 8 is contained in 58, 7 times with 2 remainder. Therefore 
8 is contained in 378, 47 times with 2 remainder; or one-eighth of 
37 is 4, with 5 remainder, etc. 

(3) In step 2, the pupil should be taught to prove his work. 

c. Step 3. The division of any number .by any number; viz., 
"Long Division." 

(1) In this work two things must be taught: (a) A form for 
long division (b) The use of the trial divisor and trial dividend. 

(2) To teach the form, use at first examples in short division; 
later examples with larger divisors within the range of the pupils' 
extended multiplication table; as 12, 15, 25, 20, 30, etc. The aim 
here is to show the pupils where to express the different elements 
in the example. No other difficulty should be introduced until they 
are reasonably expert in applying their knowledge of the form of the 
work. More rapid progress will be made by thoroughly mastering 
one difficulty before another is introduced. 

(3) To teach the use of the trial divisor and trial dividend, use 
for divisors 21, 31, 41, etc., and he sure that the number of times the 
first figure of the divisor is contained in the first one or two figures 
of the dividend is the true quotient figure; as, 

164 

41)6742 
41 

264 
246 

182 
164 

18 



138 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

In this example 4 is contained in 6, once; in 26, 6 times; in 18, 4 times: 
The only way safe examples can ib^ obtained is to prepare carefully a 
list, testing them in each use of the trial divisor to see that it gives the 
true quotient figure. Even the divisors "21, 31, etc., will not ensure this, 
though the smaller the unit figure the more likely it is to do so. 

(4) Many such carefully prepared examples should be given. 
When the pupil becomes reasonably expert in this simple use of the 
trial divisor give many graded examples in which corrections must be 
made; as 

185 

45)8363 

45 

386 
360 

263 

225 

38 

Presenting the difficulties too rapidly results in confusion and dis- 
couragement. 

Examine the textbook in your school with reference to the gradation 
of the problems. 

3. Factoring 

a. Step 1. The prime factors of all numbers from 1 to 12 in- 
clusive. 

These must We memorized; probably all that is necessary at this stage 
is to drill for rapidity. 

b. Step 2. The factoring table 

(1) The factoring table is a table of the two factors of all the 
numbers desirable to factor by inspection as 32=8x4; 46=2x23; 
72=8X9; 125=5x25; etc. 

(2) The two factors should be recognized by memory at sight. 
If one has to divide to get one of the two factors, the step is not ready 
for use as a tool. 

(3) The memorizing of the table can be more quickly done if 
presented in an orderly manner. The following is suggested: 

(a) The products of the multiplication table. This part of the 
Factoring Table should be learned in the third year with the multipli- 
cation table. 

(b) All multiples of 4 to 100 not included in step 1, and above; 
as 52, 68, 76 and 92. 

(c) All multiples of 5, 1 to 100, not abpve included; as 65, 75, 
85 and 95, 



ARITHMETIC 139 

(d) All multiples of 7, 1 to 100, not above included; as 91 and 
98. 

(e) All multiples of 3, as above; viz., 39, 51, 57, 69, 78, 87, and 
93. 6X13 is a better combination for 78 than 3X26. 

(f) All multiples of 2, as above; viz., 26, 34, 38, 46, 58, 62, 
74, 8 6, and 9 4. These 2 6 products as elements of the factoring table 
should be known as a step in the mastery of numbers. 

(g) Any other numbers whose importance demands placing in 
the table. 

In factoring numbers not found in the multiplication table, the two 
largest factors should be memorized. The child must learn that 57 
equals 3X19; 91 equals 7X13, etc. It will be noticed that most of this 
class of composite numbers have but two factors. Where more than 
two factors are found, as in 68, the child has learned that 68 equals 
4X17 and can then easily factor the 4. 

Children should be made skillful in all of this work. They should be 
able to write the prime factors of all composite numbers below 100 as 
rapidly as they can write. 

c. Step 3. Prime numbers from 1 to 100. Pupils should be 
drilled on these until they can write them in 25 seconds or less. 

4. Cancellation. The process of cancellation is easy and is 
readily learned, but like all other processes it has little value un- 
less children apply it in the solution of problems. 

Give many two or three step problems in applied arithmetic in which 
the solutions call only for multiplication and division. Solve by 
"straight line analysis;" i. e., indicate the work and shorten the com- 
putation when possible by cancellation; as. If 24 sheep cost $92, find 
the value of 36 sheep. 

23 6 

= $138. 

By use of factoring in cancellation, much computation usually requir- 
ing written work can be done mentally. 

The work suggested in the above, will serve as an excellent drill'upon 
the multiplication, division and factoring tables. 

Children should tje taught to use cancellation in multiplication and 
division of fractions as soon as they learn these processes. 

The application of cancellation should be made in problems involving 
areas of circles, cubical contents, etc. 

5. Fractions 

a. Grade in which to begin. Children are frequently given the 
subject of fractions too early. Some writers place it as early as the 
fourth grade. This is entirely unnecessary, as there is sufficient ma- 
terial to keep a clas's profitably employed at least a year longer. The 
subject should not be taken up (except in an oral concrete way) until 



14 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

the last half of the fifth year. Nothing is gained by introducing it too 
early. Not only does it take a longer time to teach the subject but the 
children are more likely to acquire a dislike for it. When they have a 
reasonable mastery of the preceding subject matter and their powers of 
thought have been sufficiently developed, the subject may be taken up 
with the result that they master it in less time. They also like it better 
because they are able to understand it. 

b. Oral work with fractions should be commenced early, — as 
soon as such terms as half, third, fourth, etc., can be introduced in a 
natural way. The work should be concrete and related to the child's 
experience and observation. Fractional parts should become as real to 
him as whole numbers, and he should be given opportunity to handle 
such parts and to talk about them. He thus learns inductively that two 
fourths and four eighths equal one half; that two whole things and a 
half equal five halves; that twelve fourths equal three whole things, etc. 

Here, as in all other number work with objects, do not continue 
their use after the pupil has the ideas clearly in mind. 

c. Large denominators to be avoided. Some textbooks in use 
contain problems having fractions with large denominators. If 
these books must be retained, omit such problems and supplement 
with exercises in which small denominators are used. It is much 
better for a child to gain facility in working many pioblems with 
easy fractions than working a few problems with difficult fractions. 
If it is thought desirable to give the children some practice in hand- 
ling difficult fractions, such work should be left until the last year 
after the most essential work has been mastered. 

d. Textbook. In general the teacher should follow the work 
as outlined in the textbook used. In multiplication and division, 
however, only one rule should be given for each process rather 
than to break the work up into different "cases" with a special rule 
for each. The following rules are suggested: 

(1) For multiplication: To multiply a fraction by a whole 
number, a whole num,ber by a fraction or a fraction by a fraction, 
think one as the denominator of intergers, reduce mixed numbers 
to improper fractions, multiply the numerators together for a new 
numerator and the denominators for a new denominator, using can- 
cellation where possible and reduce the result to its simplest form. 
(2) For division: To divide a fraction by a whole number, 
a whole number by a fraction, or a fraction by a fraction, think one 
as the denominator of all integers, reduce mixed numbers to im- 
proper fractions, invert the divisor and proceed as in multiplication 
of fractions. 

e. Compound and complex fractions should be omitted. They 
may be taken up later in case some of the work should make it 
necessary. Some knowledge of complex fractions may be of value 
in percentage. 



ARITHMETIC 141 

6. Decimals. Much practice should be given in reading and writ- 
ing decimals and in the reduction of decimals to comraon fractions 
and common fractions to decimals. The work should be limited to 
numbers involving four decimal places. 

Practice should be given in multiplication of decimals until the 
children form the habit of placing the decimal point correctly in 
the product. When this process has been thoroughly mastered, 
take up division of decimals and use the knowledge gained in mulr 
tiplication to work out the rule for pointing off in the quotient. 
Some prefer to teach the Austrian method of division of decimals. 
Authorities differ regarding the real merit of the device. 

Give many simple practical problems based upon simple decimal 
numbers. Much of the work should be oral. 

7. Denominate numbers. This phase of arithmetic work should 
be introduced in connection with the practical problems throughout 
the early grades. The time at which the various denominational 
units should be introduced will vary in different localities and in 
different schools. The children should be given clear ideas of the 
different units and for that reason every school should be supplied 
with the measures. 

In the sixth grade the work in denominate numbers should be 
completed. 

Much work should be given in estimating distances, areas, and 
volumes; also the weight of different objects. These estimates 
should be verilied by actual measurements. This is a training that 
is of great value in getting young people to see the applications of 
arithmetic to actual conditions. 

In teaching square measure pupils should cut from paper the 
square inch, the square foot, and the square yard. (To get the 
square yard paste two large sheets of paper together.) Give some 
practice in measureing with these units so that the pupils get a 
clear conception of what area means. 

Have at hand paper rectangles of various sizes and have the chil- 
dren ascertain their area, using the square inch as the measuring 
unit. Develop this rule gradually, being sure that the children 
actually see that length by w^idth means the number of units in a 
row multiplied by the number of rows. 

Use the same plan in developing the rule for volume. Time 
spent in giving pupils clear ideas regarding units and measure- 
ments will be more than made up by the correct habits formed. 
Simply memorizing tables and working by rule will not give them 
the power that they acquire by actually thinking things and doing 
them. 

8. Percentage. Many teachers find percentage one of the most 
difficult subjects to teach. The probable reason is that they find 
it difficult to illustrate the subject in a concrete way. 



142 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

a. Meaning of "per cent". Teach that per cent means hun- 
dredths, not &2/ the hundred. 

45 10 

Thus 45 per cent means 45 hundredths or — ; 10% means — 

100 100 

b. Illustrative square. Draw a 2 0-in(;h square on the black- 
board or on a large sheet of paper. Divide this square into 100 
small squares. 

1 
Each little square is — of the large square or 1 per cent of it. 
100 

Give the children exercises in pointing out or in covering up differ- 
ent per cents (and also fractional parts) of the large square: 20 
per cent, 3 per cent, 35 per cent, 75 per cent, 4 per cent, 5 per 
cent, y2 per cent, 98 per cent, i^ per cent, 1/10 per cent, etc. Point 
out parts of the diagram and have the children tell the fractional 
parts and the per cent the parts are of the whole square. 

Other devices may be introduced to illustrate percentage in a 
concrete w-ay. 



ARITHMETIC 143 

c. Equivalents. Work out with the children the following list 
of equivalents, making use of the diagram whenever necessary. 
Lead the pupils to see that changing a common fraction to per cent 
is changing the fraction to an equivalent fraction whose denomina- 
tor is 100. This is simply a special case of reducing a common 
fraction to higher terms. 

100 
Multiply each fraction by — , leaving 100 for the denominator: 

100 

20 12i 

4 ioo 80 3 ioa 374 

4 100 100 ' g 100 100 

When the children see the relation this work bears to what they 
had in fractions, teach them the short method of reducing from a 
common fraction to per cent: Add two ciphers to the numerator 
and divide by the denominator. Give practice to secure skill. 

One-half 50 hundredths 50 per ct. 

One-fourth 25 " 25 

Three-fourths 75 • " 75 

. One-fifth 20 " 20 

Two-fifths ...40 " 40 

Three-fifths 60 " 60 

Four-fifths 80 " 80 

One-tenth 10 " 10 

Three-tenths 30 " 30 

Seven-tenths 'iO " 70 " 

Nine-tenths 90 " 90 

One-eighth 12^ " 121 *• 

Three-eighths 37i " 37i " 

Five-eighths 62^ " 62| " 

Seven-eighths 87i " 87^ " 

One-third 33^ " 33^ " 

Two-thirds 66| " " 66| " 

One-sixth 16f " 16| " 

Five-sixths 83^ " 83\- *' 

One-ninth 11|^ " lit " 

Two-ninths 221 " 22| '' 

Four-ninths 44| " 44f 

Five-ninths 55f ' ' 55| ' ' 

Seven-ninths 77| " 77| " 

Eight-ninths 88| " 88f '• 

One-seventh 14| " 14f " 

Two-sevenths 28f " 28f " 

Three-sevenths 42f " 42f " 

One-eleventh 9-^ " 9yV " 

One-twelfth 8^ " 8^ " 

One-sixteenth , Q^ " 6^ " 

One-twentieth 5 " 5 • ' 

One-twenty-fifth 4 " 4 

One-fiftieth 2 " 2 

One one-hundredth 1 " 1 " 

After making the above list pupils should commit it to memory. 
The time element should be introduced in the drill. 



144 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

Teach children how to simplify the complex fractions given in 
the second column so that they may know how to reduce from per 
cent to common fractions. 

Have the pupils find the decimal forms of the above but do not 
require them to be memorized. 

d. Practical uses. The system of figuring percentage needs to 
be learned because it is used in so many phases of industrial and 
business life. 

(1) In testing milk we find how many pounds of butter fat 
there are in a hundred pounds of milk. 

(2) In testing seed we find how many kernels in a hundred 
germinate. 

(3) In borrowing money we pay yearly a number of cents 
for the use of a dollar. 

(4) In selling goods some persons charge a given number 
of cents for every dollar's worth they sell. 

(5) In calculating profits or losses business men figure how 
many cents they have made or lost on every dollar they have in- 
vested. 

(6) In sales, merchants mark their goods dow^n by throw^ing 
off a given number of cents on the dollar. 

(7) In marking goods for sale dealers, after calculating 
the total cost, figure on a certain gain which is often on a per- 
centage basis. The per cent profit varies with different commod- 
ities and different kinds of business. 

(8) In speaking of foods w^e often give the percentages 
of protein, etc. they contain. 

(9) Have children mention other uses of percentage which 
have come to their notice in reading papers, books, bulletins, etc. 

9. Fami problems involving percentage 

a. Milk problems. By the use of the Babcock test the per- 
centage of butter fat in the milk is determined. Is the milk in 
your community sold according to the butter fat test or is it sold 
merely by weight? When milk is sold by test, it is paid for by 
the amount of butter fat it contains, and rich milk brings larger 
returns than poor milk. 

Many farmers are now using the milk sheet in keeping records of 
individual cows. In this way they can determine which cows are 
profitable and which are not. If possible, have the children get 
some actual experience in keeping a milk sheet and calculating 
the amount of butter fat from different cows. 

b. Seed testing problems. These have been quite generally 
introduced and need not be explained here. Every school should 
give some actual practice in this work. 

c. Other problems growing out of home activities may be in- 
troduced if they are based upon real conditions existing in the com- 
munity. Unless so-called "practical" or "industrial" problems can 
be made real they should not be introduced. 



ARITHMETIC 145 

10. Interest 

a. Much oral work ghould be done in this subject so that the 
children may become proficient in computing interest for short peri- 
ods. Many small loans are made for 30, 60, or 90 days. 

b. 31ethods for written work. The teacher should select for 
the written work one of the simplest methods in computing interest 
and give the children sufficient practice to enable them to master 
the process. As a rule methods involving the manipulation of frac- 
tions are cumbersome and productive of errors in calculation. After 
the subject is thoroughly understood the shortest process should be 
selected. 

Two methods quite universally used are the cancellation and the 
aliquot part methods. Both of these are really adaptations and 
abbreviations of the common method. 

Problem: "What is the interest of $24 at 5% for 3 yrs. 8 mo? 

11 
By cancellation: $240x.05X — =$44. 

3 
By aliquot parts: 

Interest for 1 year = $12 

" 2 years = 24 

" 6 Mos. (1/2 Yr.)= 6 

" 2 Mos. (1/3 of 6 .Mos.)= 2 



Total $44 

In computing the interest for short periods as 3 0, 60, 9 0, or 120 
days the following method is well adapted for oral work: 

(1) Get the interest of any sum of money at 6% for 6 days 
by pointing off two places. 

(2) From this number calculate the given number of days 
or the given per cent. 

Examples: What is the interest of $3 5 @ 6% for 9 days? 
Interest at 6% for 60 days = .35 
" " " 30 " = .18 

" " " 90 " = .53 

What is the interest at $156 @ 7% for 3 days? 
Interest at 6% for 60 days=$1.56 
" " " 30, " = .78 
" 7% " 30 " 
(add 1/6 of .78 or .13) = .91 
c. Promissory notes. While pupils are studying interest, they 
should learn to write the different kinds of promissory notes and 
to use intelligently the terms that are common to the commercial 
transactions to which these notes relate. These notes should be 
written as part of the regular school work and interest on them 
calculated. 

10— S. M. 



146 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

Caution them never to sign a business paper of any kind with- 
out reading it carefully and understanding the contents. People 
are sometimes led to sign papers that afterward prove to be prom- 
issory notes. 

d. Partial payments may be touched upon when notes are 
studied. Have pupils write notes with indorsements showing that 
payments have been made. Have them see that this subject is sim- 
ply a phase of simple interest. A few such notes may be giveiv 
them to work out but the computations should be simple. Do not 
have them work the long, complicated problems sometimes found 
in the textbooks. 

e. Gompoimd interest. Teach the nature of compound inter- 
est and give a few simple exercises to show how these problems 
are worked. Show that instead of being an entirely new subject 
it is simply a phase of simple interest. Call attention to the use 
of the table and give a few problems demonstrating its use. 

In connection with compound interest the subject of savings 
banks should be taken up, especially if there is one in the com- 
munity. Teachers should find out from such institutions how ac- 
counts are handled, the rules governing interest, and the kind of 
dep< f-it books ustd. Children should be encouraged to open up 
accounts and thus get into the habit of saviug. Such practice 
teaches both arithmetic and thrift. 

f. Bank discount. Speak of bank discount as another phase 
of simple interest. It is interest charged in advance by banks when 
they discount notes. 

g. Problems in finding the principal. Some practice should be 
given the pupils in finding the principal when the other elements 
are given: What principal is necessary to yield an annual income 
of $500 at 5%? These problems should be simple and most of 
them oral. Involved problems in interest should be omitted from 
the required work but may be given as special exercises to any of 
the pupils who find the work easy. 

11. Commission. In this subject Case I only should be required, 
(finding the commission when the rate and amount of sales are 
given) and a few oral problems in" finding amount of sales when 
the rate and commission are given. The other problems are op- 
tional. 

Discuss the application of this subject to the life of the com^. 
munity. Are there any of the people in the neighborhood shipping 
hay, grain, eggs, cattle, veal, etc., to commission merchants in the 
large cities? If so, it might be possible to secure a form of the 
statement received by the shipper. (Be careful when finding out 
how transactions are carried on not to bring any person's private 
business affairs into the class, unless such person himself brings 
it in as an illustration of the work.) Who pays the freight? 

Is there any one in the community selling things on commission? 
Agents very often sell things on a commission basis, such as books, 



ARITHMETIC 147 

pianos, automobiles, fruit trees, etc. What is the difference be- 
tween selling articles on a commission and selling on a salary 
basis? If you were to accept a position which would you prefer? 
Why? 

A few problems like the following may be given as oral work: 
An agent receives a commission of 5%. What must be the 
amount of his sales in order that he may make $7 5? 

12. Commercial discoiint. Discuss with children sales that have 
been held in nearby cities and villages. What is a sale? Why is 
it held? Have you noticed articles in the windows marked down 
from $3.50 to $2.50? Sometimes we read on a sign 25% off. What 
does it mean? 

What are discounts and what are some of the reasons for giving 
them? 

Review sale bills and add to them the discount feature. 

13. Profit and loss. The ■v\ork in this topic should not be re- 
stricted to working the problems found in the textbook, but should 
be applied as far as possible to farm interests. After the general 
principle has been developed and some general problems worked, 
bring up a discussion of profit and loss with reference to farm 
projects. 

a. Is a certain field yielding profit? What factors must be 
considered? Labor, seed, losses, etc? What is the gross income? 
The total cost? Gain or loss? Does it pay? What must be 
known to determine if a cow is profitable or not? Can this be fig- 
ured out? What facts must be secured? 

b. Is it profitable to buy up young stock in spring, fatten it, 
and sell it in fall? What factors must be considered? What items 
will have to be considered in determining OiOsf^ Does the interest 
on the money expended have to be considered in the example? 

c. Can it be figured up just what it costs to produce a bushel 
of corn, peas, or barley? What facts must be known? What are 
the different items which you would include in computing the cost? 

d. Give much oral work in this topic, using small numbers. 
A newsboy pays one cent a piece for his papers and sells them for 
3 cents. What per cent profit does he make? What per cent does 
he make if he buys them for 2 cents and sells them for five? 

A boy gets an article for nothing and sells it for ten cents. What 
is the gain per cent? Lead the children to see that the cost is 
always an essential factor in finding gain or loss per cent. 

14. Stocks and bonds. No time should be spent in the country 
school on this subject working the problems usually given in the 
textbooks. The matter is foreign to the children's experience. 

a. If there is a cooperative creamery, cheese factory, insur- 
ance company, bank or other institution in the community, find out 
from the proper authorities how the institution was organized and 
how it Is managed. The plant represents an investment in which the 



148 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

stock holders have put their money. The business is earning money 
for them. If it flourishes, profits are ^aid in the form of dividends. 
How many shares have been sold? What was the price per share? 
Have dividends been declared? If so, what rate? If possible se- 
cure a sample of a stock certificate and have pupils study it. 

b. The teacher should get reliable information from some one 
who is in a position to give it before presenting this topic to a 
class. If one cooperative company can be studied at first hand the 
time will be profitably spent. Attention may then be called to the 
fact that there are many such companies organized in a similar way 
for various purposes. 

c. The pupils may now read what the textbook gives about 
the subject, but should not be required to work the textbook prob- 
lems. Safe and unsafe, profitable and unprofitable investments 
should be touched upon. Many people have lost money by invest- 
ing it in mining stock and other risky ventures. Warn against "get- 
rich-quick" schemes. 

d. Call attention to the stock quotations on the financial page 
of newspapers. A person can ascertain the price of stocks and bonds 
just as he can the price of grain, hay, or butter. A person who has 
money to invest can buy city bonds, government bonds, etc., and 
thus make his money earn an income for him. Bonds are issued by 
a municipality or a corporation when it borrows money for improve- 
ments. 

15. Insurance 

a. This topic should be taken up for the sake of general infor- 
mation. The best method of approach is to ascertain what com- 
panies are doing business in the community, what kind of policies 
they write, what rates they charge, etc. This information can be ob- 
tained from the people themselves and used for discussion in the 
class. Secure a blank policy if possible. Are there any local insur- 
ance agents in the community? 

b. After information regarding companies operating in the com- 
munity has been secured read what the textbook gives on the sub- 
ject. The textbook problems, however, may be omitted. Instead, 
if time permits, have pupils make their own problems, using the 
local companies^' rates. 

c. Are the companies mentioned above cooperative companies 
or are they "old line" companies? In case of a fire what proceedings 
are gone through with before the insurance money is paid? 

d. In general what is life insurance? What are ttie purposes? 
If the subject can be taken up in a concrete way, it may be discussed 
briefly for informational purposes, but no time should be spent work- 
ing the book problems. Whatever is taken up in the way of prob- 
lems can easily be solved orally. 

16. Duties. This is a subject for the civics class and does not 
properly come under arithmetic. It is not profitable to spend time 



ARITHMETIC 149 

working the textbook problems in this subject. See course of study 
under civics. 

17. Taxes 

a. Introduce this subject in a concrete way by having the chil- 
dren imagine that they are to undertake some proposition which is 
to cost a given amount. . They will then be the taxpayers. The 
amount of the tax levy depends upon the cost of the undertaking 
and the tax rate upon the number of taxpayers. Give an exercise 
of this kind and have the pupils figure it out. 

b. Let them next suppose that the tax will be apportioned ac- 
cording to another standard — assessed valuation. Make a supposed 
list of the valuation of the members of the class and then apportion 
the cost among them on that basis. Our taxes are apportioned ac- 
cording to the assessed valuation. How is the valuation determined 
and by whom? When? What is the assessment roll of the town? 
What items are or should be on a tax receipt? 

c. How much did your tov/n (village, city) raise last year? 
What was levied by the county on your town? What was the state 
tax that your town had to pay? What is the assessed valuation of 
the town? What was the tax rate for the town? 

d. Who makes out the tax roll and how does he do it? To 
whom are the taxes paid? Give name of these persons in your town. 

e. Let children get information needed for the subject from 
the proper officers, if possible, or from their parents. Secure a copy 
of the proceedings of the county board of supervisors. The training 
that the teacher can give the children in getting the information re- 
garding the taxes is worth more than the arithmetic work itself. 

f. It may be possible to get the town clerk, the assessor, or the 
town treasurer to come to the school some time during the winter 
and tell the children about the work they are doing and give them 
actual figures regarding the valuation, tax rate, etc. After the chil- 
dren understand the subject from the concrete work that has been 
done, textbook problems may be given for practice. The tax rate 
is spoken of in terms of mills on the dollar. 

18. Exchange. Exchange as a subject should be omitted from the 
course of study but some time should be spent discussing the differ- 
ent methods of sending money to distant places. This topic is not 
an application of percentage but it is valuable for the general in- 
formation it contains. 

a. Secure from the post office money order application blanks. 
The rates are printed on the blank. What must a person do in or- 
der to send money in this way? Go through the different steps. 

b. Express company money orders can also be purchased. If 
possible, find out how these differ from the post office orders. 

c. If a person has money deposited in a bank he may send his 
own personal check and the person receiving this may cash it in his 



15 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

own town. This is a very common way of sending nioney, especially 
short distances. 

d. If a remittance is to be sent to a distant town a bank draft 
is often purchased. Por this a small fee may be charged. This 
bank draft is really a check of one bank on another bank with which 
it has deposited money. 

e. Money may be sent by registered mail. Pind out from the 
postmaster in what way registered letters are handled differently 
from ordinary letters. 

f. In case of great urgency, money may be sent by telegraph. 
Information regarding this method can be obtained at a telegraph 
office. 

19. Banking business 

a. With what banks do people in your community do business? 
What is the capital stock of each? (See reports in newspapers.) 
What is the value of a bank to a community? How does a bank 
make money? 

b. Check deposits. Get deposit books, deposit slips and check 
books. Show children how these are used. Every teacher ought to 
have a bank account with some bank to learn business methods by 
actual practice. Deposits subject to check do not draw interest. 

c. Certificates of deposit. If a person wishes to deposit money 
in a bank and have it draw interest he usually gets what is called a 
certificate of deposit. Such deposits are not subject to check. In- 
terest is usually not paid unless the money is left for a given min- 
imum period. 

d. Borrowing money at a bank. The bank receives money from 
those who have it to invest and loans it out to others who can make 
use of it. Loans are made only to people who are considered safe. 
Por large sums securities must be given. A common form of secur- 
ity is the mortgage. Have a copy of a blank mortgage at school. 

When a person gives a mortgage as a security for the payment of 
his note he guarantees the payment by offering his property or a 
part of it in case the note is not paid. 

20. Accounts 

a. Cash accounts. As early as the fifth year this work should 
be commenced. The general form should be taught: 

Dr. Cr. 



Jan. 



Jan. 



1 Cash on hand 

3 Rec'd foi* egrgs 

4 Tiec'd from Mr. Jones 
7 Rec'd from Mr. Brown 

a 



Bal. forward 



14 


26 


Jan, 


2 


3 


55 


'• 


3 


5 


00 




5 


20 


00 




10 


42 


81 






10 


86 







Paid for groceries 
Paid for fe«d 
Paid Mr. Henry 
Balance 



1 


35 


-T 


30 


25 


30 


10 


88 


4l 


81 







ARITHMETIC 



151 



All cash received is entered on the left, or "Dr." side and all cash 
paid out on the right, or "Cr." side. The "cash on hand" or the 
"balance forward" is the first entry. 

Teach the pupils to "balance" the cash account. Draw horizontal 
lines under each column as shown at a and a'. These lines should 
be on the same level irrespective of the number of items in the col- 
umns. Add the debit side and put down the sum (42.81). Be sure 
it is accurate. It is well to add from top to bottom as well as from 
bottom to top. Then add the credit column and subtract its total 
(31.95) from the total on the left side ^42. 81). The difference 
(10.86) is the unexpended balance or the amount of cash on hand at 
the time the account is balanced. Insert the item "Balance" as 
shown in the account above. When this item is added with the 
amounts paid out the total will be the same as the total in the debit 
column. After recording the total as shown above draw double lines 
which indicates that the account is balanced. Then bring down 
the balance as indicated. This balance must tally with the amount 
actually in possession of the individual. 

The form of the account may be modified so that both the credit 
and debit items may be kept on the same page. 



Date 






Dr. 


Cr. 


Jan. 


: 

8 
9 


Cash on hand 


33 

~1> 


64 
25 


12 


15 


Paid for lumber 


Eec'd from Mr. T, Ay res 



The children should be encouraged to keep their own personal ac- 
counts of receipts and expenditures. Not only is this a good practice 
from the arithmetic standpoint, but it has a broader significance as 
the child is able from time to time to note how much money is spent 
for different purposes. Many people would be surprised to note how 
much money they spend for difterent items that seem insignificant. 

For this personal expense account the following form is better 
than the one given above for the reason that it is simpler, more com- 
pact, and enables a person to keep it balanced at all times. 



Date 



Personal cash account of Harvey Hanson 



Cash on hand 
liter each entry 



Mar. 


1 




2 




3 




3 




3 




3 




4 




7 




10 




10 




10 



Cash on hand 

Rec'd from father (birthday) 

Rec'd for egsrs 

Paid for tablet 

Paid for candy 

Deposited in bank 

Rec'd for work 

Rec'd from grandpa (gift) 

Rec'd for pg-gs 

Paid for chicken feed 

Paid for ball and bat 





2 


45 


1.00 


3 


45 


.50 


3 


95 


.10 


3 


85 i 


.05 


3 


80 1 


2.00 


1 


80 


.25 


2 


05 


.10 


2 


15 


.48 


2 


63 


.25 


2 


38 


1.00 


1 


38 



152 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



b. Personal accounts. We often have accounts with other per- 
sons, such as our neighbors, our hired help, and even people living 
at a distance. These accounts should be kept in a systematic way. 
Trusting to memory leads to inaccuracies which may bring embar- 
rassment. If accounts are kept, the date of the transaction is re- 
corded and often aids the memory in recalling the situation. Farm- 
ing is getting to be a complex business and the children who are now 
in our schools should be taught the essentials in keeping accounts. 

In personal accounts the principle to be kept in mind is that a 
person should be "debited", that is, the item should be recorded on 
the left side, when we sell him goods on account and when we pay 
him on the account he has against us. He should be "credited", 
that is, the item should be entered on the right side, when he sells 
us goods on account and when he pays us on the account we have 
agains^t him. 

The following are illustrative personal accounts: 





' 


In account wi 


h James Hammond (neighbor) 






Mar. 


10 
15 


Sold seed on % 
Sold cow on % 


15 00 

80 00 


Mar. 


20 


Received on % 


50 


00 


In account with Chas. Howard (hired hand) 


Mar. 
June 


1 

16 
15 


Wages due 
Wages due 
Wages due 


16 
16 
16 


00 
00 
00 


Mar. 
Mar. 
June 


5 
10 

1 


Paid salary 
Paid salary 
Paid salary 


16 
5 

27 


00 
CO 
00 



c. Farm Accounts. The principle underlying cash accounts and 
personal accounts also underlies farm accounts. Whenever a farmer 
desires to know definitely the profit or loss on any particular phase 
of his business, he should open an account in which to record the ex- 
penditures and receipts pertaining to that phase. Accounts may be 
opened for the proper entries of items relating to the dairy herd, the 
corn crop, the alfalfa field, the orchard, the poultry, or any other 
farm activity. 

In any of these farm accounts the same general principle governs 
the entries: Debit an item whenever it is an expenditure in the 
business and credit it when it is a receipt. In other words, treat the 
poultry business, etc., as if it were persons with whom you are 
dealing. 

P0ULTPv7 



Jan. 


1 


Inventory (value of 
fowls, feed on hand. 




















etc.) 


26 


50 


Jan. 


9 


Kec'd for eggs 




48 


" 


2 


Paid for feed 


1 


00 


" 


14 


Rec'd for oggs 




60 




20 


Paid for feed 


2 


50 


;; 


20 
26 
31 


Rec'd for eggs 
Kec'd for eggs 
Rec'd for eggs 




80 
92 
55 






Balance (Profit)] 


7 


35 


Feb. 


1 


Inventory 


28 


00 




1 


Inventory 


37 
"28 


00 








J7 35 


Felx 







ARITHMETIC 



153 



CORN CROP 







Cost of seed (or mar- 
ket price) 

Pj eparation of 
ground 

1st Cultivation (Ijoth 
ways) 

2nd Cultivation 

3rd Cultivaiion 

Cutting- corn 

Shredding corn 

Balance (Profit) 










Rec'd for seed 

corn 
Sale of feed 

corn 
Sale of fodder 







In teaching farm accounts it is well to have pupils construct original 
problems. Let them find out through inquiry the cost of seea, the cost 
of cultivation, etc. The accounts should not be made too complicated 
b|y the addition of such items as interest on the investment, deprecia- 
tion of value in machinery, etc. The purpose here is to teach the pu- 
pils the process of keeping accounts and have them keep in mind the 
essential factors in doing the work. 

Note in the first account given above that the inventory Feb. 1 is not 
the same as that of Jan. 1. Why the difference? How might the in- 
ventory be less? (Death of fowls, sale of fowls, etc.) 

If there has been a gain in the business the balance will coine on the 
left side; if a loss, it will come on the right side. 

The method of closing the accounts is the same as in the cash ac- 
counts and the personal accounts. 

There are three different things that need to be taught in this topic: 
The opening of accounts, the proper method of making entries, and 
the closing of accounts. Sufficient practice should be given so that 
children master these three essentials. 

21. Building problems. The pupils should understand the terms 
used in connection with building operations. What dimensions do we 
find in different pieces of lumber? What is a scantling? A joist? A 
rafter? A sill? A studding? A two-by-four? etc. 

Call attention to different kinds of lumber used in construction of the 
schoolhouse. What kinds of wood are mostly used for our lumber? 
What are the characteristics of hemlock, pine, maple, oak. etc.? 

Have at hand a board foot. If lumber is less than an inch thick it is 
still figured as though it were inch lumber. 

A good formula for working lumber problems is the following: 

No. pieces X thickness (inches) X width (inches) X length (feet) X price 

per M. 
12x1000 



Do not cancel the 1000; point off three places in the quotient. 

What different kinds of materials are used for roofs? How is each 
sold? How many packs of shingles in a M? How many square feet 
will a M cover? 



154 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

How is concrete made? What are the ingredients and in what pro- 
portion are they? How are cement Wocks made? What is stucco? 

Of what dimensions are bricks? Of what material are they made? 
How are they sold? Where is the nearest brick yard? The nearest 
lumber yard? 

22% Metric system. If time is found for this subject take it up 
in the following way: 

a. Have the pupils construct a metric measure (39.37 inches) and 
divide it into decimeters and centimeters. With this give them practice 
in measuring the room, the blackboard, the window lights, or any other 
convenient objects.. The purpose is to give them some familiarity with 
the system by giving them actual practice in itr use. With the data se- 
cured by the measurements computations may be made. Lead them to 
discover the simplicity of the system, 

b. Have the pupils construct a liter measure out of paper. A liter 
is a cube whose edge is one decimeter. Note that it is about the same 
size as a quart. Have them also make out of paper a centiliter. How 
many centiliters are there in a liter ? 

c. The unit of weight in the metric system is the gram, and repre- 
sents the weight of the water contained in the centiliter. This is a very 
small unit and cannot be used except in weighing very small things. 
The ordinary unit of weight is the kilogram which consists of 1000 
grams. By questioning lead the pupils to see that the kilogram is tlie 
weight of the water contained in a liter. A kilogram is equal to about 
21/5 pounds in our system. Ask each pupil about how many kilograms 
he weighs. 

Do not spend much time on the metric system, but if possible get the 
pupils to see the simplicity of it. Our problems would be very much 
simplified if this system were introduced universally. 

After spending as much time as can be reasonably given to the study 
of the system itself, tell the pupils that most countries have adopted it 
and are using it in their everyday affairs. England and the United 
States are the two important nations that have not adopted it. 

The metric system is also used extensively in scientific experiments. 
A person frequently encounters metric terms in reading scientific ar- 
ticles. 

If the pupils are having debates in school a good question for discus- 
sion would be the following: Resolved, That the metric system should 
be introduced into the United States. 

23. Business practice. Just as dramatization is a valuable fea- 
ture in language work so practice in "acting out" business transactions 
may be made a valuable feature in arithmetic. The business terms used 
are thus made more real to the children. 

a. Buying and selling. The little children in the lower classes 
may occasionally be given exercises, in buying and selling. Small ar- 
ticles, such as pencils, erasers, etc., can be given prices and some 
cardboard may be cut up to represent coins. The making of these 
coins from pasteboard can be assigned to the children as seat work. 



ARITHMETIC 155 



One of the class may act as clerk while the others are customers. 
The exercise must be planned carefully by the teacher and the pur- 
pose must always be kept in mind so that the work will not become 
mere play. The importance of giving the correct change should be 
emphasized. Facility and accuracy should be commended. A store- 
Jieeping outfit for school purposes has been prepared by the Model 
Store-keeping Department, 31 E. 2 7th St., New York City. Teachers 
may receive further particulars and prices by writing to the company. 
While a reasonable amount of this work is excellent and helps to 
give the children a clearer conception of the value of arithmetic, it 
should not be overdone. The amount that should be given and the 
complexity of the business transacted must be left to the judgment 
of the teacher. 

b. Making change. Teach the children the business method of 
making change. If the purchase amounts to 68 cents and the cus- 
tomer hands over a dollar bill, the clerk adds to the 6 8 cents enough 
change to make a dollar, counting as he does so: 68, (adding two 
cents) 70, (adding a nickel) 75, (adding a quarter) one dollar. 

c. Caution. The teacher should be careful that the introduction 
of an exercise of this kind does not upset the discipline of the school. 
The exercise should not be a long one. 

d. Business papers. When the pupils get into the fifth grade and 
begin to write bills, checks, and receipts, the business practice exer- 
cises can be extended to include the writing and handling of these 
papers. They can make out deposit slips and deposit money in the 
"school bank." As they sell to one another they may render bills 
and some of the payments may be made by check. As they buy and 
sell they may also keep cash accounts, using school change. Card- 
board slips on which names (and quantities) of commodities are writ- 
ten may be used to represent these commodities. These transactions 
may be kept up for some time as part of the arithmetic work while 
the children are doing other work outlined in the course. Large en- 
velopes may be provided for keeping the business papers and school 
currency. 

e. Suggestive exercises for the advanced class. In the advanced 
class of the country school (seventh or eighth grades) a more ex- 
tended practice can be given as the children have then had all the dif- 
ferent processes of calculation. The transactions can be carried on 
while the pupils are given review problems or supplementary exer- 
cises. In a country school one transaction a day is usually all that 
can be given. The following exercise in business practice is given 
here in order that teachers who wish to give the children some of this 
work may have something to guide them. The transactions are 
planned with reference to the feasibility of their execution rather than 
with reference to imitating the transactions in actual business life. 

Before taking up the following series of lessons make bills and coins 
for class use. Also make cardboard slips representing different quan- 
tities of the commodities the children are going to handle in busi- 
ness, such as 50 bu. of oats, 10 tons of hay, etc. Have samples of 
checks, receipts, bills, deposit slips, bank deposit books and any other 
papers that will be needed. It will be a good practice to have the 
children write out these forms when they are needed rather than to 
use prepared blanks. The practice they get in preparing these busi- 
ness papers will make them familiar with the details. There should 
also be at hand a small supply of cheap envelopes. (These need not 
be sealed when sent.) Each pupil should have a simple book for keep- 
ing accounts. Get all this equipment ready before assigning work for 
Che business practice. 

We will suppose that there are five pupils in the class. Assign 
numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Each pupil is a dealer in hay and grain. Have 



156 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



them live at different places, thus necessitating correspondence. All, 
however, do business with The School Bank. 

If the class has fewer members than five, or there is a larger num- 
ber, slight modifications may be needed in these directions. 

A teacher who desires to give to the pupils in the upper class the 
exercises given below, should study carefully the set given for the 
whole twenty days before beginning any of the work with the class. 
Necessary help can often be obtained from men in business, such as 
bankers, merchants, etc. 

(1) First day's work: Each pupil makes a loan of $1,000 for 
20 days from The School Bank, paying interest at the rate of 6%. 
Pupils write their notes and come to the bank. Examine the notes 
to see if they are correct in every way. Sometimes the interest on 
money borrowed at the bank is paid in advance and taken out of the 
amount borrowed. When the bank charges interest in advance it is 
called Bank Discount. Frequently, however, the interest is paid when 
the note is due. They deposit the money borrowed, less the interest, 
($1000— $3.3 3) in the bank. Enter the amounts in their bank 
books. The teacher files away the notes and the children take the 
bank books to their desks. They can now pay bills by writing checks 
on the bank 

(2) Second day. Each pupil writes to O. Fulton & Co., 
Sampleton, Wis., giving an order for wheat, corn, oats, rye and hay. 
The pupils have supposedly written to different business firms and 
found this one the best. Let orders range between 450 and 500 dol- 
lars. Bushels of grain should be ordered in 50's or multiples of 50 
and tons of hay in lO's or multiples of 10. Have pupils put letters 
in envelopes unsealed and bring them to the class. Examine letters 
and have them make corrections if necessary. No money is to be sent 
in the letter as the commodities are to be sold on account. The let- 
ters should be neatly written in ink and left at the desk (post office). 

Note: All letters, checks, bills, etc., should be neatly written in ink. 
Do not accept careless or illegible writing. 

(3) Third day. Have orders of previous day ready for deliv- 
ery. Put cardboard slips representing commodities in envelopes. 
Have bills ready. Give to each pupil the commodities he ordered in 
one envelope and the bill for same in another. Disregard freight 
charges. Let them open up an account with the firm by entering 
the amount on the credit or right side. 

Note: Use current prices. See market report in paper. In selling 
the commodities calculate profits as follows: 3 cents on a bushel of 
wheat, 2 cents on rye, corn and oats, and $1.00 on a ton of hay. 

(4) Fourth day: Have each pupil write a letter to the num- 
ber above him (No. 2 writes to No. 1; No. 3 to No. 2, etc.,) ordering 
commodities. Let orders range from 200 to 225 dollars and let them 
be distributed among the various commodities. Bring letter to class 
ready to put in post office. Examine letters to see that they are cor- 
rect. Call attention to errors that may be found. Deliver letters to 
addressees. 

(5) Fifth day: Pupils come to class with orders filled, commo- 
dities in envelopes ready to be shipped by freight and bills for same 
ready for mailing. Examine bills and call attention to errors. De- 
liver freight and letters, disregarding freight charges. Each pupil 
needs now to open up personal accounts with two of his classmates, 
one of which will have a debit and the other a credit item. Each pu- 
pil has then three personal accounts. 

(6) Sixth day: Have each pupil write and bring to the class a 
check for $150 to pay O. B^ulton «& Co., as part payment on account. 
Also have each one write a check to pay the classmate who has the 



ARITHMETIC 157 

next number above for the commodities received in the fifth day's 
work. A letter should accompany the check to the company and 
the bill should be enclosed with the check to the classmate. Examine 
checks to see that they are carefully written and correct in every re- 
spect. These payments necessitate making- an entry of $150 on the 
debit or left side of O. Fulton's account, and an entry on the left side 
of the classmate's account. Ask each pupil how his account stands 
with O. Pulton & Co. Keep the company's checks and distribute the 
others to the addressees. 

(7) Seventh day: Each pupil receipts the bill that was paid 
by check and returns the receipted bill by mail. Examine the pupil's 
account books to see that all entries are properly made. Each pupil 
brings to the class the check received the previous day. Examine the 
checks. If they are correct have each pupil endorse his check. Dis- 
cuss with the pupils the reason for these indorsements. Cash the 
checks by g-iving- the pupils school currency. Pupils now open up a 
cash account, entering- the amount received on the left side. Each 
pupil files away the receipted bill which came through the mail. 

(8) Eighth day: Pupils bring- two orders to class, one for 
O. Fulton & Co., ordering another supply (amounting to about $400), 
and the other for about $150 to the classmate having- the number be- 
low (No. 1 orders from No. 2, etc.). Examine letters. Keep the ones 
addressed to the company and deliver the others to the addressees. 
Answer any questions the pupils may have regarding their work. 

(9) Ninth day: Have all orders of previous day filled and ready 
for delivery; also bills for same. Pupils bring their shipments to the 
freight office and the letters to the post-office. Examine bills. De- 
liver freight and mail. Each pupil needs to make three entries. One 
is in O. Fulton & Co.'s. account and the others are in the new accounts 
which he opens up with two of the members of the class. 

(10) Tenth day: Each pupil writes a letter to the classmate 
whose number is the second above him (No. 3 writes to No. 1; No. 
4 to No. 2; No. 5 to No, 3; No. 1 to No. 4; No. 2 to No. 5) and orders 
commodities to the amount of about $150. Look over letters and 
distribute them. Pupils fill orders, make out bills and bring mate- 
rials to the desk. Freig-ht and mail distributed. 

(11) Eleventh day: Entires made of preceding day's busi- 
ness — the opening- of two new accounts. Each pupil makes out a 
check to pay in full the shipment received in No. 10. Check and bill 
sent in letter. Proper entry made in account book. Letters distrib- 
uted. 

(12) Twelfth day: Each pupil receipts bill and sends it back. 
Proper entry made in account book. Checks brought to bank and de- 
posited. Pupils fill in deposit slips. Be sure they indorse the checks. 
Have pupils sell to Herman Weston for cash 50 bushels of each kind 
of grain, sending bill. They bring- grain to desk in envelopes and re- 
ceive payment in school currency. Entry made in cash book. 

(13) Thirteenth day: Pupils ship all the commodities they 
have on hand to E. H. Barton & Co., Grainville, Wis. Bills sent by 
mail. Account opened with the new company. 

(14) Fourteenth day: Pay pupils by check for shipments of 
day before. Enclose bills with checks. Have pupils receipt the bills 
and return them. Entry made in account book. Have pupils deter- 
mine how their personal accounts with their classmates stand. 

(15) Fifteenth day: Have pupils send checks to the class- 
mates whom they owe, paying them in full. Enclose statements with 
checks. Enclose letters telling what the remittance is for. Make en- 
tries in account books. 

(16) Sixteenth day: Receipts sent for payments made the pre- 
vious day, showing: that the accounts are paid in full. Checks depos- 



158 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



ited in the bank, using deposit slips. Entries made in bank books. 
Checks filed in bank. 

(17) Seventeenth day: Each pupil makes application to the 
bank for a draft to pay the balance of O. Fulton & Co.'s account. 
Let this draft be on a bank in Chicago. Explain to the pupils that 
The School Bank does business with this Chicago Bank and has money 
on deposit there: hence it draws upon its deposit just as they are 
drawing upon The School Bank by check. Since the pupils are reg- 
ular customers of the bank no exchange is charged for the draft. 
Discuss with the pupils the form of the draft. In what way is a 
bank draft superior to a personal check? 

(18) Eighteenth day: Have drafts ready for distribution. 
Pupils mail them to O. Fulton & Co., enclosing letter. Have the pu- 
pils leave their books at the desk to be balanced. Ask the pupils to 
balance the cash account and see if the balance agrees with the 
amount of money they have actually on hand. 

(19) Nineteenth day: Pupils receive receipted statement from 
O. Fulton & Co., giving itemized account. Two credit items are given, 
one for $150 and the other for the amount of the draft. Statement 
filed with other vouchers. 

Are all bills paid? Are all accounts settled? Does the cash on 
hand tally with this balance in the cash account? Discuss any other 
matter that may need attention. 

(2 0) Twentieth day: Before the class assembles the teacher 
should balance the bank books and have them ready for distribution. 
Put in each pupil's book the checks that he has made on his account 
and note that indorsements are properly made. 

Give the pupils their bank books and call attention to the fact that 
their checks come back to them. These are now receipts or vouchers 
and should be kept on file. 

Pupils come to the bank to pay- the note. When is the note due? 
Since the interest was paid at the time the money was borrowed, the 
amount to be paid now is the face of the note. A check is necessary 
to pay the bank just as it is in paying another person. 

After the note has been paid let each pupil report the amount of 
money he has in his possession either in cash or as a bank deposit. 



IV. TESTS AND EXAMINATIONS 

1. The most important and the most bi|eneficial tests are those given 
by the teacher in connection with the regular daily work of the class 
In these tests the weaknesses of the work should be discovered and the 
causes for them found. Frequently it is necessary to give special in- 
struction to clear up the difficulty as well as to give additional prac- 
tice and drill. 

2. The reviews that are given are also to some extent tests, though 
they are valuable for other purposes. 

3. Exercises should be given in testing children in their ability to 
read and interpret problems and to apply their knowledge to actual life 
conditions as well as in testing their ability in pure calculation. 

4. In giving tests both accuracy and speed should be given considera- 
tion. The standard for accuracy sTiould be high, at least 90%. Pupils 
should be tested in regard to their ability to make measurements and 
to secure other data for problems. The following exercise is an ex- 



ARITHMETIC 159 

ample: The ratio of the window surface to the floor space in a school- 
room should be at least 1:5. What is the ratio in this room? 

5. Pupils should be trained also in securing data from books or other 
sources in the working of problems, as in the following: (a) What was 
the per cent increase in the population of Wisconsin during the decade 
1900-1910? (b) What will be the cost of the seed needed for sowing 
10 acres of oats? 

When a teacher gives a test it should be for the purpose of ascertain- 
ing the efficiency of the teaching, as well as ascertaining the knowl- 
edge possessed by the pupils. 

6. The tests for graduation from the common school given by the 
county superintendent should include the following: 

a. An exercise in mental arithmetic. In this the pencil should be 
used only to record results. 

b. A reasonably difiicult set of varied practical problems to be 
worked by pupils with pencil in a given time. The appearance and ar- 
rangement of work and the use of short methods should be taken into 
consideration in grading the paper. The problems should not necessi- 
tate the use of uncommonly large numJibers. No ITroblems should be 
included involving the use of portions of arithmetrc excluded from this 
course. It is also a good plan to give tlie pupils a choice of 10 out of a 
set of 12 problems. 

c. If possible it would be well to test the pupils' ability in making 
accurate measurements and working problems based upon such data. 
Likewise tests that reveal the pupils' power to estimate distances, areas, 
etc., would be good, as well as questions that show the power the pupil 
has in finding data from books and other sources. As a rule it is not 
practical to embody such tests in the regular diploma examination, but 
it might be feasible in many instances for the county superintendent 
and the supervising teacher (especially the latter) to give exercises 
while visiting the schools. It is a good plan to become personally ac- 
quainted with the children who are completing th^ course. Such exer- 
cises would also be suggestive to the teacher and to the other pupils. 



V. REFERENCES 

1. References for teachers and institutions training teachers 

Charters. Teaching- the common branches, p. 273-99. (T) 
Cutler & Stone. The rural school; its methods and manage- 
ment, p. 294-318. Silver 
Gilbert. What children study and why, p. 108-45. Silver 
Kendall & Mirick. How to teach the fundamental branches, 

p. 164-224. Houg-hton. 
McMurry. Handbook of practice for teachers, p. 102-13. Mac- 
millan. 

2. References for teachers and pupils 

Calfee. Rural arithmetic. (T) 
Gillan. Problems without figures, S. T. Gillan, Milwaukee. 



160 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



Ijewis. Farm business arithmetic. (T) 

MacGregor. The book of thrift. (T) 

Smith & Thomas. Farm accounts, (T) 

Teller & Brown. First book in business methods. (T) 

Courtis. Tests in arithmetic. Dr. S. A. Courtis, Detroit, Mich. 

Thomson. Minimum essentials in arithmetic. Ginn & Co., 
Chicago. 

Studebaker. Practice exercises in arithmetic. Scott, Fores- 
man & Co., Chicago. 

A desk copy of a textbook other than the one in regular use. Such a 
copy is of value in supplying supplementary problems and also because 
of the additional discussion of the various topics. S^ome of the text- 
books in agriculture contain sugge'stive farm problems, as does also 
Field's Corn Lady which is in the Township Library List. 



GEOGRAPHY 161 



GEOGRAPHY 



I. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 

1. Grades. The course of study in geography is outlined to cover 
a period of four years. It begins with the fourth grade and ends 
with the seventh. Like many other subjects, more time seems de- 
sirable to cover what is commonly considered essential for the coun- 
try school pupil but it is thought some time usually given to this 
subject can be used to better advantage in other subjects. If the 
work is intensive and the eliminations here suggested made, a sat- 
isfactory course can be given in this time. 

2. Emphasis on leading countries. The best course of study, 
judged from the standpoint of permanent effectiveness, calls for the 
study of the more important countries twice. With a crowded 
course of study, it is not wise to study the countries of lesser im- 
portance more thah once. An intensive study of the leading coun- 
tries is preferable if time permits. It is true that all series of 
texts treat of continents twice but this is done largely to meet the 
requirements of the different courses of study and not with the 
thought that the continents and countries of lesser importance are 
to be studied more than once. 

3. Course of study and combination of classes. Home geography 
for the third and fourth grades precedes that of the more formal 
work which is usually covered in a two-book series. The work out- 
lined for these grades is to he taught at the period designated "Lan- 
guage'' on the program. The smaller or first took of the series is to 
l)e completed in the fifth grade, and the larger or second 'book in the 
sixth and seventh grades. These grades recite together studying 
"North America and the island possessions of the United States in the 
even numbered years (1918-1919 and 1920-1921 are even numbered 
years). South America and the Eastern Hemisphere should be stud- 
ied in the odd numbered (1917-1918 and 1919-1920 are the odd num- 
bered years). By this arrangement the teacher has only two classes 
reciting in the period designated "Geography.'^ 

11— S. M. 



162 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



II. COURSE OF STUDY 

Third and Fourth Years 

(Home Geography) 

The outline in home geography is intended to guide the teacher as 
to subject matter and furnish material for language work having 
a geographic background. Each one of the topics can be and should 
be more fully developed by the teacher. Help in doing this will be 
found in the reference books at the close of this subject. 

The home geography as here outlined is to be based on observation 
and taught as part of the language work in the third and fourth 
grades. 

1. Water. Water falls upon the ground as rain. Part of the 
water runs off in streams, part goes into the ground and comes out 
later on the sides of hills as springs, part goes into the ground and 
later comes to the surface of the ground and is evaporated by the 
sun. The part running off the surface helps to form little creeks or 
streams. These flow into larger streams or rivers and these con- 
tinue to the ocean. 

After many years of rainfall, will the ocean run over? Why? 

Water left in a pan will evaporate and pass off into the air. 

Does the water of the ocean go into the air like the water from the 
pan? 

Why do ponds "dry up?" Why do teakettles boil dry? 

Do clothes dry more quickly in the sunshine or shade? On a cold 
or warni day? On a windy or a calm day? Why? 

2. Fog and Clouds. The earth is cooler at night than in the day 
time. In the evening when the moisture of the air comes in con- 
tact with the cool earth it condenses so much that we can see it. 
This is fog. 

Where and when do you see fogs? 

Is it healthful to live where there are frequent fogs? 
When can we see our breath? What part do we see? . 
A cloud is a fog high in the air. Can we see fogs rise? 
Have the pupils identify the cumulus, stratus and nimbus clouds. 
Why can't we see the sun and moon through some clouds? 
How far from the ground are clouds? 
Why do clouds move? Where do they go? 
Why do some move faster than others? 
Which cloud gives us rain? 
What is a cloudburst? 

On a very hot day when there has been a heavy fog in the mornins", 
it often rains late in the afternoon. Why? 

3. Springs. What makes the water come out of the ground in 
the form of a spring? Why is spring water usually pure? Why 
^o some springs dry up? 



GEOGRAPHY 163 

The water that goes into the ground dissolves the softer rocks 
and carries them out in solution at springs. This is how mineral 
springs are made. Nearly all spring water has in it some mineral, 
such as lime or sulphur. Have the children bring some of the lime 
deposit found in the bottom of the teakettle. 

Heat is produced by chemical action when water dissolves cer- 
tain rocks. This water flows to the surface of the ground and we 
have hot springs. Have pupils slack a little lime to show how this 
occurs. Again, some water goes into the ground so far that it 
comes in contact with heated rocks and, after running over them, 
reaches the surface as hot springs. 

How deep into the ground does water g-o? Why does it stop? 

Teach about, and show pictures of, health resorts, also show pic- 
tures of formations made by hot springs and geysers. The Yellow- 
stone Park formations are beautiful. 

Name several values of springs. 

How much more is a farm worth having a spring upon it than it 
would be without one? 

What is a geyser? 

4. Dew, frost, snow and hail 

a. Dew. Dew is vapor of the air condensed into water while in 
contact with cold objects. 

Why do we usually find it on grass? 

What are the uses of dew? 

Why does grass wither and the leaves on trees wilt? 

What is taking place when the pitcher sweats? 

Should you stand your glass of drinking water on the tablecloth? 
Why? 

Some people place the pitcher and glass on doilies and not on the 
tablecloth. 

What makes the pump-spout or the faucet wet in summer? 

Do you find them wet in winter? Why? 

b. Frost. Frost is vapor of the air condensed into snow while 
in contact with cold objects. 

Where do you see it first in the fall? 

What plants freeze easiest? 

Name the damages frost may do. 

On a cloudy night frost is not so liable to occur because the clouds 
hold the heat in the air near the earth. 

Frost is of much value in breaking up small stones into soil. Plants 
secure food from soil. 

Name other values of frost. 

At what temperature does water freeze? 

Why will a pitcher or pipe burst if the water freezes in it? 

Fill a glass bottle full of water, let the water freeze and note the 
effect. 

c. Snow. Snow is vapor frozen in the air. 

Discuss shapes and show pictures of snowflakes. 

Discuss the uses of snow to man. 

Would you prefer to live where there is no snow, snow part of the 
year, or where there is snow the year around? Show the advantages 
and disadvantages of living in each place. 



164 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



Name and discuss the sports of children, such as sliding down hill, 
sleigh riding, skating, skiing, curling, ice boating, etc., in cold coun- 
tries. 

Discuss the effect of snow on the food of birds and other animal 
life. 

What do people do to protect animal live in these countries? 

Do wild animals need protection in your district? 

What is an avalanche? > 

d. Hail. Hail is frozen raindrops. 

Why and when does it hail? 

What are the benefits and what the harmful effects of hail? 

Which of the farmers' crops does hail often destroy? 

5. Ice. A pail full of ice is lighter than a pail full of water. 

What would happen to the fish if ice were heavier than water? 

What would be the effect on our climate? 

Would plants grow? 

Oould animals or man live? 

Give the uses of ice, , 

Go with the pupils where it is being cut and stored for summer use. 
Observe carefully how it is done. 

The automobile is now used in place of man and the horse in some 
places to cut ice. 

How are icicles formed? 

6. Creek or river. Go with a class to a creek and study the 
current. Teach that at least three things — the slope of the land, 
the crookedness of the stream, and the composition of the soil — 
make a current swift or slow. Show how a stream gets more 
crooked from year to year and that after a while it will straighten 
itself. 

Does any river flow in a straight line? 

How and why do people straighten rivers? 

Why do large rivers generally flow by large cities? 

Which are of more value — swift or slow flowing rivers? 

Teach the difference between an estuary and delta mouth. 

Why are dams built across rivers? 

Notice how the river is digging into the bank at a certain place and 
that down the stream a short distance it is depositing dirt on the op- 
posite side of the river. 

Find small islands, capes, peninsulas, whirlpools, eddies, falls, rap- 
Ids, etc., in the river. 

After a rain the water is muddy and some rivers are muddy all the 
time. Where does the mud come from? 

Notice that every rain causes the soil, grain by grain, to move down 
the slope to a lower position, hence the hills are being worn down and 
the soil carried to the river, and eventually to the ocean. Will the 
rivers finally carry all the land to the ocean and the water of the 
ocean flow over all the land? 

Teach four or five uses of a river. 

7. Lakes. Show that lakes are formed by rivers; that some have 
an outlet and that others have; no visible outlet. The sun evapo- 
rates water from the latter as fast as it enters them. Lakes cool 



GEOaRAPHY 165 

the land around them, contain fish for food and make a cheap way 
of transporting produce. Lakes are also used for industrial and ir- 
rigating purposes, to flood land for frost protection and to furnish 
a water supply for large cities. 

Why can produce be carried cheaper on boats than on railroads? 

All lakes have salt carried into them by the rivers because there 
is some salt in all soil. Lakes with outlets allow the salt to be car- 
ried through them to the ocean. Those with no outlet hold all the 
salt coming- to them because only pure water is evaporated by the sun. 
Therefore, lakes with no outlets are salty. Why is the ocean salty? 

Men build dams across the outlets of some lakes to secure water 
power for machinery. What damag-e might be done if a dam should 
break? Give instances where dams have broken such as in the case 
of the Johnstown flood. 

8. Uses of water. Water is used for drinking, cleansing, and 
cooling purposes, and to quench fires. What other uses can the 
pupils name? 

We should drink at least three pints of water per day. 

Ice water is not healthful for people or for the lower animals. 

How many houses in the district have running water in them? 

Some people pipe water into barns and arrange the cups so the 
cows may drink at any time in the day. This prevents the water be- 
coming too cold and gives the animals a chance to drink whenever 
they desire. 

Are any barns in your district arranged with individual drinking 
cups for the cattle? 

Formulate and have the pupils learn definitions of all forms of wa- 
ter, such as dew, frost, fog, cloud, snow, hail, etc. 

Warm water is lighter than cold water. Partly fill two small bottles 
with water. Color the water in one with a little ink, heat it and pour 
it carefully and quickly into the other. The colored water will re- 
main on top. Next pour the cold water into the hot and note effect. 

9. Work of water in the ground. Often so much material is dis- 
solved and washed out of the earth that large holes or caves are made, 
sometimes the land over such holes falls into them and we have what 
are known as sink holes in the land. Go with the children to caves 
and sink holes if there are any in the district. Encourage the class 
to find such places. Tell them about Fingal's Cave and the Mammoth 
Cave. Show pictures of stalactites and stalagmites and explain how 
they are made in the caves and how beautiful they are. 

10. Wells. Teach that wells are holes sunk in the earth to ob- 
tain water, oil, gas, etc. 

Show what is meant by a surface well. A bored well. An arte- 
sian well. 

Why is the water in some wells impure? 

What is a filter? Have the children make one. 

By drawings upon the blackboard and pictures, show the children 
the conditions necessary to produce an artesian well. 

Teach the different devices for getting water from wells, such as 
pumping by hand, the use of the windlass, windmills and gasoline 
engines. 



166 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

11. Air. Man and all animals and all pfents breathe air. With- 
out air to breathe, all plant and animal life would die. We cannot 
see air but we can feel it. Wind is air in motion. Air covers all 
land and all water and is found in all animals, plants, minerals, and 
land. Heat does not go through air as easily as it does through 
dirt. 

Why does the ground freeze harder in a beaten path? 

AVhy does a farmer dislike to have a winter road across his wheat 
field or meadow? 

If we should go straight up for a distance of two hundred miles we 
would find some air. Air is light but the clouds float in it and birds 
and man fly in it. It contains much watery vapor and the more it 
contains the lighter it becomes. The sun warms the ground and the 
ground warms the air next to it. The air on the sunny side of a house 
is warmer than the air on the other side because the house and ground 
are warmed by the sun and they warm tlie air. It is warmed only 
a very little by the sun's rays passing tlirough it. It is generally 
warmer when the sun is setting than when it is rising". Why? 

Is it colder at midnight or just before sunrise? 

March 21st and Sept. 21st are the same length but it is much colder 
March 21st. Why? 

Air holds so much heat that tlae plants, animals and land are kept 
much warmer by, it. Air in motion drives windmills, sailboats, clouds 
and many otlier things useful to man. When air is heated it expands 
and occupies more space. Take a toy balloon: partly fill it witli air 
and tie up the opening. Heat it over a stove and notice it expand. 
If well heated it will rise. Why? 

12. Rocks and soils. Go with the pupils to the very common 
rocks of the district. Study especially sandstone, limestone, and 
granite if found in the district and have pupils make collections of 
them. 

Soil is made largely from rocks. Water dissolves rocks and also 
goes into the crevices of them, freezes and pries them to pieces. Have 
the pupils notice where the rocks have scaled off in the spring as the 
result of frost. Roots penetrate rocks by going into the crevices and, 
as a result of the growth, the rock is pried apart. Roots also secrete 
an acid which tends to disintegrate the rock, allowing the growing 
root to follow. 

Earthworms bore holes into the ground by eating dirt and fine 
gravel. The acid secretions of the worm dissolve the gravel and 
make soil. We, therefore, have soil made largely from rock by water, 
frost, plants and worms. Have the pupils make a collection of fossils 
and discuss with them how the vegetation got into the rock. 

Teach how petrified wood 4s made. 

Soil is also made from vegetation as well as from rock. This soil 
is known as humus. 

Have the pupils collect in bottles the three kinds of soil and ar- 
range them in the order given here — clay, sand, humus. Also have 
the pupils pour water upon three different soils to see which will 
hold water the best and which will dry out the quickest. It will be 
well to have the pupils secure partially disintegrated rocks, decayed 
wood or a piece of rotten stump, and other forms of decayed vegeta- 
tion. Visit with the pupils a cut in the road which shows humus 



GEOGRAPHY 167 

on top, followed by well disintegrated rocks, and finally by the solid 
rock. Expain to them that this is the condition of the ground in 
nearly all places. 

What do we mean by poor soil? Rich soil? 

Can soil be to rich? 

What is done to enrich the soil by the farmers in your district? 

Tell the pupils how careful the people of the older countries of the 
world are to save all kinds of fertilizer from the farm and put it on 
the land, and also what a large auantity of artificial fertilizer is 
bought by them for the soil. 

Which is the best kind of soil for the growth of corn, wheat, oats, 
clover, alfalfa, etc.? 

The Wisconsin Experiment Station, Madison, Wis., will give you 
free information about soils and the different farm crops. 

13. Land. The land is the solid part of the earth as distin- 
guished from the water. Any part of it is seldom level but slopes 
more or less. When the water falls upon the ground it runs down 
the slopes, usually carrying with it some dirt, and the best dirt. As 
more rain falls a little groove is cut in the slope, or a small valley is 
formed. As more rain falls the valley becomes deeper. Show the 
pupils how a valley is formed by folding paper in the shape of the 
letter "V." Also show them grooves and ditches, which are only 
small valleys, cut in the earth by water, and lead them to see how 
the valleys in their district were formed and are now being formed. 
A spring rain carries away much good soil. 

Is the surface soil of your father's farm being washed away by 
rains- Where is it going? 

• Often some farmers seed down the hill slopes or leave them cov- 
ered with timber to hold the soil. Why is it unwise for a farmer to 
plow his land on the side of a hill ? 

The dirt washed from the fields often forms a delta in the mouth 
of a slow flowing river. Is the delta usually made of rich or poor 
soil? 

Children should be encouraged to look for and bring to school 
beautiful pictures of hills, mountains, glaciers, rivers, valleys, water- 
wheels, oceans, steamboats, springs, artesian wells, geysers, volcanoes, 
etc. These pictures may be gathered from magazines, newspapers, 
old books, advertising circulars, etc., then classified, arranged and 
pasted by the teacher upon a piece of large cardboard or the back of 
an old railroad map. They may also be pasted on large cards of uni- 
form size and filed away for future use. These cards may be used 
from year to year for drill purposes on land and water forms and on 
the leading industries. 

14. Industries. Preparatory to a study of the diiferent kinds of 
industries, ask the pupils what the principal business of the people 
in the district is. What does each pupil's father do? It there any- 
one in the district who has no regular work? Why should they not 
be employed? Why do people work? Is a person happier with or 
without work? 



168 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

a. General fanning. Some of the reasons why more people 
are engaged in general farming than in specialized farming are as 
follows: 

(1) If one kind of crop is a failure the farmer will have those 
crops that are not a failure to live upon. 

(2) Many people like a variety of occupations. 

(3) Some people do not know which occupation they like best 
and keep on experimenting with different occupations from year to 
year. 

(4) Usually more capital and better scholarship are required 
in specialized farming. 

(5) A few people can do all the work because the crops may 
be harvested at different times of the year. 

(6) People prefer to receive money several times during the 
year rather than to have it come all at one time, as in most kinds of 
specialized farming. 

(7) There are certain by-products and waste from one line of 
farming that can be used to advantage as food or fertilizer for other 
kinds of framing. 

(8) What other reasons can the pupils give why so many peo- 
ple are engaged in general farming? 

Now have the pupils give as many reasons why specialized farming 
is preferable to general farming. 

b. Specialized or intensive farming. Specialized farming usu- 
ally consists of dairying, stock raising, poultry, small fruits, or truck 
gardening. 

The industry or industries most common in the district should be 
carefully studied. Collect pictures of the leading agriculturists and 
the leading breeds of cattle, horses, hogs, sheep, and poultry. These 
may be found in agricultural journals, poultry journals, magazines, 
and newspapers. Have each pupil arrange the pictures in book 
form. Here should be found pictures of barns, barn equipment, the 
different type silos, hog pens, chicken houses, incubators and brooders. 
Place in the same book pictures of small fruit farms and those show- 
ing the operations in truck gardening. Hardware and implement 
dealers will be glad to furnish these pictures. 

Collect pictures of the world record cows for milk and fat produc- 
tion. These pictures should show cows with weekly, monthly, and 
yearly records and may be secured from farm journals found on the 
library list and from those taken by farmers. The leading dairy 
breeds are the Holsteins, Guernseys, Jerseys and Ayrshires. A dual 
purpose animal is one that is profitable to keep both for its dairy 
and beef qualities. Teach the leading dual purpose breeds. What 
is meant by a 30 lb. cow? What is meant by boarder cows? How do 
people know when they have them? 

Take the class to the farms specializing in any particular thing and 
study them at first hand. Have the owners show the stock, barns, 
silos, poultry house, machinery, etc., and point out methods in plant- 
ing and harvesting crops. Such questions as the following may be 
asked while there: 

Why does the farmer grow the crops that he does? 
When were they sown or planted? 



GEOGRAPHY 169 



Is he growing crops that add nourishment to the soil, such as beans, 
peas, clovers and alfalfa? 

Is he selling the feed raised on the farm or does he feed it to the 
cattle and return it to the farm later in the form of manure? 

What is the proper time to sow or plant the crops grown? 

What is the proper amount of grain to sow or plant and the best 
way of doing it? 

When and how are silos filled; corn shredded; potatoes dug; fer- 
tilizer hauled out, etc. ? 

Does he keep cattle for beef or milk purposes? Why? 

What work animals has he ? 

What other animals are on the farm. 

As Wisconsin is the leading state in the Union in the production of 
cheese, the pupils should visit the cheese factory when possible in 
company with the teacher. Early in the morning when the milk is 
delivered is the best time. Also visit the creamery or milk condensery. 

What is meant by 4 per cent milk? skimmed milk? whey? con- 
densed milk? certified milk? 

What is cheese? What are Daisies? Twins? Young Americas? 

Which is more profitable to the farmer — to separate and sell the 
cream, or to take his milk to a creamery, a cheese factory or a con- 
densery? 

c. Other leacliiig industries in AVisconsin are manufacturing, 
lumbering, mining, transportation, fishing, buying and selling. 

Teachers should take advantage of every opportunity to have pupils 
visit any of these industries that are carried on in the district. Make 
definite arrangements with those in charge of the enterprise and 
then inspect saw* mill, lumberyard, excelsior mill, feed mill, paper 
mill, factories of all kinds, stockyards on the day stock is delivered 
electric light plant, etc. Suggestive questions relating to these in- 
dustries may be found on page 183. 

Easy means of transportation is one of the leading topics of the 
day. Discuss the different methods of transportation: by ox team; 
by horses; steam cars; electric cars; automobiles; aeroplanes. 

Are methods of travel today more dangerous than formerly? 

Are they more pleasant? 

Are they easier on the individual? 

Many old people enjoy the beauties of nature and visit places im- 
possible under former methods of travel? 

Can a person accomplish more in a given number of years by the 
present methods of travel? 

Teach that easy methods of travel shorten distance, are the means 
of bringing- produce and producer nearer market and people nearer 
together, and serve in a large way as a means of schooling the peo- 
ple of the country. 

Is it common for farmers to trade in the same village or city that 
they did twenty years ago? 

Do good roads help or hinder the growth of the small villages? 

Have they had any effect on church attendance? 

15. Geographical stories. While the pupils are studying about 
their home industries and modes of living, the teacher should tell and 
have certain members of the class tell about the children living 



170 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

under less favorable and those living under more favorable conditions. 
Pupils are interested in not only children near home but those in 
far away countries. Many stories, of course, should be read by the 
teacher and by members of the class. A large number of these stories 
may be gotten from children's and young folks' magazines. Encour- 
age children to ask their parents for a children's magazine in pla;ce 
of other forms of birthday or Christmas gifts. The magazines will be 
read and then brought to school for others to read. Teachers, of 
course, will not fail to consult the district library for books contain- 
ing geographical and nature study stories. If .the library contains 
few of them, the township library list will suggest desirable ones. 
Following is a list of good stories: 

a. ChildLren of cold countries: The Seven Little Sisters, 36-38; 
The Children of the Cold, 9-153; The Little People of Asia, 28 0-29 5; 
Snow Baby/ Little Polks of Other Lands, 26-32; Land of the Long 
Night, 75-87; Little Folks of Many Lands, 23-37. 

b. Children of hot countries: Seven Little Sisters, 94-107; Seven 
Little Sisters, 31-34; Little Polks of Other Lands, 66-69. 

c. Children of the Desert: Seven Little Sisters, 48-66; Little Folks 
of Other Lands, 7-16. 

d. Chinese and Japanese Children: Seven Little Sisters, 80-9 3; 
Carpenter's Asia, 49-58; Wade, Our Little Japanese Cousin. 

e. Indian Children: Stories of Indian Children, 7-34; King's Geo- 
graphical Reader, Book IV, 202-208. Wade, Our Litle Indian Cousin. 

f. German Children: Seven Little Sisters, 108-136; Boys of Other 
Countries; Wade, Our Little German Cousin. 

g. Swiss Children: Seven Little Sisters, 67-69; Wade, Our Little 
Swiss Cousin; Big People and Little People of Other Lands. 

h. Dutch Children: Around the World, Bk. 1; Little Folks of 
Other Lands, 74-81; The Wide World, 57-65. 

i. French Children: The Wide World, 6 5-73. 
j. Mexican Boy: The Wide World, 108-114. 

16. Directions. Teach the cardinal points by having the pupils 
stand with their backs to the sun at noon. The shadows will fall 
north, back of them is south, on their right is east, and on their left 
west. Have the pupils point to the desk, pictures, teacher, pupils, 
and name the direction of each. Also have them tell what direction 
one object is from another. 

Teach the semi-cardinal points, and have the pupils locate objects 
to fix direction. Ask such questions as the following: 

Albert, in what direction is your home from the schoolhouse? In 
what direction is the schoolhouse from your home? What direction is 
Vernon's home from William's? (Have the pupils walk quickly east, 
south, northwest, etc.) Which way does Warren's father go to the 
city? Which way does Cameron's? Allen, name the direction of 
your home from the homes of the other boys in the class. What direc- 
tion do the children go to get the cows? What direction is the corn- 
crib from the barn, etc.? 

Have the pupils get a cheap compass and a small magnet, if none 
are in the school, and study them. 

17. Distance. Have the pupils secure foot rules. On the black- 
board have them draw lines a foot long, six inches, three f^et, a yard, 



GEOGRAPHY 171 

etc. Have them draw lines and guess at the length, then verify with 
the rule. Now have them measure desks, blackboard, height of pupils, 
width of windows, length and width of schoolroom, cloakrooms, wood- 
pile, woodshed, width of road, length and width of their bedroom, 
house, barn, chicken coop, etc. 

18. Form. Teach the following definitions: 

A point is that which has position only. 

A line is that which has length and position only. 

A surface is that which has length, breadth and position only. 

A solid is that which has length, breadth and thickness. Ask the 
children if a point, line, or svirface can be seen. Show them that only 
solids can be seen. 

Teach straight, curved, vertical, horizontal, parallel, and oblique 
lines. Have the pupils produce such lines on the blackboard and on 
paper. Also have them hold rules, books and other articles parallel, 
oblique, vertical, etc. Teach angle, right angle, acute angle and 
obtuse angle. Show that an acute angle is sharper than a right angle 
and an obtuse angle is blunter. In what way is an obtuse person 
like an obtuse angle? Teach the pupils to draw triangles and have 
them tell the kind of angles in them. Teach them to draw quadri- 
laterals, parallelograms, rectangles, squares and circles. The follow- 
ing definitions are good: 

A quadrilateral is a plane surface bounded by four straight lines. 

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel. 

A rectangle is a parallelogram having right angles. 

A square is a rectangle having equal sides. 

A circle is a plane surface bounded by a curved line, all points of 
which are equally distant from a point within called the center. The 
difference between the circle and the circumference of it must be 
made clear. 

19. Maps 

a. Flat mai)s. Children have drawn many pictures and maps 
before this time but they have likely not drawn anything to scale. 
Teach the idea of scale by asking them to draw the cloakroom of the 
schoolhouse on the blackboard. The children cannot draw it the 
actual size because the blackboard is not large enough. Now tell 
them to let one inch on the rule stand for one foot of the room. This 
room may be about 10x12. They now draw it and observe that the 
drawing has the same shape as the room but is much smaller. 

Have pupils measure and draw the schoolroom, vestibule, school 
grounds, father's house, dining room, barn, etc. Draw these on the scale 
of one inch to the foot, then with the same measurements draw them 
one-half inch to the foot, then one-fourth inch to the foot, then two 
inches to the foot, etc. Place in the drawing of the schoolhouse the 
seats, stove, desk and bookcase. Place on the drawing of the school 
grounds, the schoolhouse, playground and trees. Tell the pupils that 
the upper part of the blackboard is north, that the upper part of the 
map when hung up is north, and that the other directions correspond 



172 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

with those in the room. Study the outline maps of the school until 
pupils give directions on them quickly. 

Have each pupil draw to scale a map of such parts of the school 
district as are familiar to him. On this map should be placed the 
houses, barns, and natural features known. 

b. Relief maps. Relief maps show a part of the land level and 
other parts at different heights so that mountains, valleys and rivers 
may be clearly located. They should be made by the teacher with 
the help of the pupils. Children like to make such maps. The topog- 
raphy of the school grounds and that of the district can be approxi- 
mately shown. The following recipes will be helpful in making the 
relief map: 

(1) Salt and flour. Mix well between thumb and finger two 
parts of common salt and one of flour. Add water slowly, mixing all 
the time. Continue this until it is of the proper consistency. 

(2) Paper. Tear up into fine pieces a number of old pa- 
pers and soak them well in water for two or three days. Drain off 
the excess water and mix well until the mixture becomes a thick, 
pliable mass. Diluted ink may be used to show bodies of water close 
to the continents, and to show lakes, rivers, etc. 

20. Globe. Simple lessons on the globe need to be taught before 
a study of the map work of the different continents is taken up. 
Teach the shape of the earth. Show the great land and water areas 
and teach the names of them. Tell the pupils that the earth is sup- 
posed to have come from the sun in a hot gaseous condition — that it 
cooled but is yet hot far down in it. Give them reasons for this be- 
lief. 

Teach diameter, radius, circumference, axis, equator, parallels, 
zones and poles. Commodore Robert Edwin Peary discovered the 
north pole and Roald Amundson discovered the south pole. Have any 
other persons been to either the north or south pole? 

The axis of the earth is its' shortest diameter because, while the 
earth was rotating in a liquid condition, it bulged at the equator and 
flattened at the poles. 

The earth has two great motions. It rotates on its axis and re- 
volves around the sun. Rotate the globe. Let a plant, vase or 
teacher's desk represent the sun, then carry the globe around it. 
This is a revolution. Rotate and revolve the globe at the same time. 
The earth goes around the sun in the opposite direction to the move- 
ment of the hands of a clock or watch. Teach this definition. Show 
that it is wrong to say that the earth revolves around the sun from 
east to west because you can go two ways around the sun and be 
going from east to west. Have one pupil represent the earth and 
another the sun. The earth representative should revolve around 
the sun representative. Now have the earth representative rotate 
and revolve about him. Remember the axis of the earth always 
points toward the north star. 



GEOGRAPHY 173 



Fifth Year 

1. Textbook. The fifth grade should begin the study of geog- 
raphy with text in hand. A review of the work given in the Lan- 
guage class the preceding year, together with a review of the gen- 
eralized home geography usually found in the beginning of the text, 
may be given first and the text used as a guide throughout the 
year's work. All books give good physical maps as well as political. 
The pupils should study them carefully. Let the teacher ask such 
questions as: 

What does the deep blue representing water indicate? The light 
blue? What the tan of the land, the orange, etc.? 

The rivers show which way the land slopes. Test pupils on the 
slopes of the different continents. Where are the divides? Have 
pupils trace the Mississippi, St. Lawrence and Colorado basins. They 
must not cross the rivers in doing so. Where are the peaks and 
where the lowlands as shown by rivers? Where will we find snow in 
the United States in summer? 

Discuss the general movement of winds. Show on a map of the 
world, and also on maps of continents, where we have periodic winds, 
westerly winds and trade winds. Tell the class that the United States 
is in the westerlies, and that Mexico is in the trade wind belt. Ask 
why California receives more rain than Wisconsin. Why does the 
west side of the Rockies receive more moisture than the east side? 
Ask many other questions of a similar nature so that the pupils may 
have the general action of winds well fixed. 

2. North America. In the study of North America as a con- 
tinent, place much stress upon the map work. Teach its principal 
divisions and the large reasons for these divisions. From a knowl- 
edge of the direction of winds, the latitude and topography of the 
country, have the pupils infer the sections of heavy rainfall, light 
rainfall, snow all the year around, a large part of the year, and no 
snow at all. Where are the hot sections and cold sections? How does 
the climate affect the character of the people living in the different 
sections? 

3. Resource map of United States. The United States should 
be studied intensively. It is a good plan to have the teacher sketch 
on the blackboard or on a large sheet of paper a small part of the 
United States and then write in the principal products, industries, 
cities and natural objects. Large areas and important things only 
should be studied. If possible, have the pupils secure small pictures 
or samples of the articles representing the things studied and paste 
on the map. See map on opposite page. Each day the map will grow 
a little, pictures will be pasted on and students will read in their 
geographies about them and recite in class on them. Not only are the 
pupils interested in the growth of the map, little by little, but the best 



174 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

possible opportunities for daily reviews and weekly drills are afforded. 
The library books dealing with the section of country under discus- 
sion should be read and reported on in class. The textbook will indi- 
cate the things worth studying in any particular section of country 
and this coupling of map work, textbook and library book, together 
with an easy method for review, secures an intensive and correlated 
line of work. 

4. Permanent blackboard map. These maps may be made rea- 
sonably permanent upon the blackboard by simply dipping soft crayon 
in mucilage and tracing in the different features with it. They may 
be erased with a cloth and warm water. 

After the United States has been studied in this way, which should 
take about two months' time, study the Northeastern, Southeastern, 
Central and Western sections of it, following the outline below: 



NORTHEASTERN STATES 

Showing: Occypations 
and Products 




Made in Fifth Grade 

V 

Richland Co. Hormal 



GEOGRAPHY 175 

5. Topical plan, of study. The following outline should be 
posted on blackboard or printed in large type on cardboard so that 
pupils may be able to read it from the recitation seats. A large out- 
line map should be used during the recitation and the pupils required 
to recite on the topics from the outline. Much of what is comprised in 
the outline should be learned by the pupils in working with the teacher. 
Oral map exercises should be conducted by the teacher on the first eight 
topics at least. With the textbook open, the teacher should teach the 
pupils how to use the textbook — what things are important and how 
to organize the material so it may be remembered and recalled fn an 
orderly way at the recitation period. 

The study period consists in the pupils finding out and learning what 
their text says about each one of the topics with reference to the sec- 
tion under discussion. By this method the children are always looking 
for something definite and not just studying everything that may come 
in so many pages of the book. 

During the recitation it is well to have the children pass to the map, 
locate and point out the various things under discussion. Every reci- 
tation may be made a topical recitation and set forms of language may 
be required in discussing any topics such as drainage, minerals or ex- 
ports of any section of country. This will give the pupils a geography 
vocabulary and a language training equalled in few subjects. 

a. Position 

b. Size 

c. Shape 

d. Boundaries — physical 

e. Coast 

(1) Regular 

(2) Irregular 

f. Surface 

(1) Hills 

(2) Valleys 

(3) Plains 

g. Drainage — River systems 
b. Soil 

i. Climate 

(1) Heat 

(2) Rainfall 

j. Products of Water 
k. Products of land 
1. Minerals 
m. Occupations 
n. Manufacturing 

(1) Power used 

(2) Raw material 

(3) Finished products 
o. Markets for products 

(1) Local 

(a) Country 

(b) City 

(2) Sections of U. S. 

(3) Foreign countries 
p. Means of transportation 
q. Exports 



176 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



r. Imports 

s. Laborers — what class? 

t. People 

(1) Origin, etc. 

(2) Social standards 
u. Centers of population 
V. Special features 

(1) Scenery 

(2) Buildings, etc. 
w. Cities 

(1) Kinds 

(a) Largest 

(b) Capital 

(2) Outline for study 

(a) Location 

(b) Growth 

(c) Occupations 

(d) Exports 

(e) Imports 

(f) Points of interest. 

The teacher and pupils, with books open, should work out an- 
swers to nearly all these questions from the map. The teacher 
should continually ask herself and the class why certain products 
are raised, why a certain climate prevails, why the coast line is ir- 
regular, why the social standard of the people is high or low, etc. 
Have the pupils use the large geography for pictures maps and de- 
scriptions. 

After completing North America, follow the same plan in the 
study of South America, Europe and Japan. It if^ not likely that 
the whole world can be profitably studied in this way during the 
year but the part omitted will be covered in the larger text in the 
sixth and seventh grades. It is better to te^ch well and to spend 
all the time possible on the countries named than to give a general 
course covering all the countries of the world. 

6. School library. Teach the lessons indicated for the fifth grade 
geography class on page 19, Lessons on the Use of the School Li- 
brary. 

7. School survey. A school survey undertaken by the pupils 
should be made in every school district. It is well to have pupils 
make maps of the school district and locate on them silos, factories, 
clubs of various kinds, etc. The work may be done in the fifth year 
or in the fall term when the sixth and seventh grades are studying 
North and South America. Under certain conditions it will be best 
for the whole school to undertake it. Through the survey it is pos- 
sible for a county superintendent to secure some valuable informa- 
tion for his county. The following list of articles will serve as a 
guide in determining what may be asked for: 

a. General statistics 

( 1 ) Number of farms 

( 2 ) Number of people owning their farms . 

(3) Number of people renting their farms 



GEOGRAPHY 177 



'4) Acres 

(a) Corn 

(b) Alfalfa 

(c) Potatoes 

(5) Number of silos 

(6) Number of creameries 

(7) Number of cheese factories .. 

(8) Number of community clubs . 

(9) Number of school clubs 

(10) Miles of 

(a) Macadam road 

(b) Concrete road 

(11) Number of horses 

(12) Number of cattle 

(a) Registered 

(b) Grades . . , . , 

(13) Number of hogs 

(14) Number of sheep 

(15) Number of chickens 

(16)Numxber of turkeys 

b. Farm conveniences 

(1) Gasoline engine 

(2) Windmill 

(3) Manure spreader 

• (4) Manure carrier 

(5) Litter carrier 

(6 Sulky corn planter 

(7) Corn binder 

(8) Hay loader 

(9) Milking machine 

(10) Cream separator 

(11) Milk house 

(12) Automobile 

(13) Silo 

(14) Road drag 

(15) Incubator 

(16) Spraying outfits: potato, fruit 

c. House conveniences 

(1) Running water: hot. cold . . . 

(2) Bathroom 

(3) Cesspool 

1,4) Basement laundry 

(5) Power washer 

(6) Cistern 

(7) Ice box 

(8) Laundry chute . 

(9) Screened porch 

(10) Sleeping porches 

(11) Electric lights 

(12) Telephone 

(13) Sewing machine 

(14) Gas or oil stove 

d. Rest and recreation 

(1) Croquet set 

(2) Swings 

(3) Hammock 

(4) Tennis 



178 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



(5) Basket ball 

(6) Boating 

(7) Reading material 

(a) Farm journals , . . 

(b) Current magazines 

Adult 

Children 



Sixth and Seventh Years. 

These two grades should recite together and complete North America 
vnth an intensive study of the United States and Wisconsin in the 
even numbered years. South Amer^ica and the Eastern Hemisphere 
should be completed in the odd numbered years. This arrangement 
as to years is desirable in order that pupils passing from district 
to district may find geography classes suited to their needs; also in 
order to facilitate the work of supervision. The large or second book 
.of the ordinary textbook series is to' be used for the material and 
the general order of presentation. If, however, the first part of the 
book deals with mathematical geography and a condensed form of 
physical geography, it is wise for the teacher to omit them. The 
pupils are not prepared for the broad abstractions of mathematical 
geography, and, while able to understand in a general way the phys- 
ical features, such as coast lines, river systems, weathering, volca- 
noes', etc., a much better understanding will be had of them if 
studied in connection with the section of country where these fea- 
tures exist. 

1. North America (even numbered years) 

a. General physical features. Following a discussion of the 
general physical features most texts treat in a large way the physical 
conditions found in North America. These features should be 
taught with special reference to the country being studied. The 
pupils must know the area covered by the westerlies, and the area 
covered by the trade winds as well as* the direction these winds 
blow. Not much headway will be made unless the pupils know the 
effects produced by high and low areas, the areas of heavy rainfalls, 
the heat belts, and the effect of latitude and altitude on climate, 
vegetation, and population. 

h. Weather map. Here is the proper place to introduce the 
study of the weather map. The pupils should be taught how the 
weather predictions are made and how the people are notified about 
the condition of the weather two or three days in' advance of any 
particular kind of weather. The weather map is printed in different 
cities of the United States and will be sent to any one who will post 
it in a conspicuous place for the use of the public. 

Show how a map forecasting the condition of the weather might 
be of service to a farmer, a rural mail carrier, the railroads, visit- 
ing parties, etc. I , 



GEOGRAPHY 179 

Maps will be sent free of charge to teachers by addressing the 
Weather Bureau at Milwaukee, Madison, or La Crosse; also Duluth 
or St. Paul, Minn., and Dubuque, Iowa. 

c. Waves, currents, and, tides. An intelligent study of the 
coastal states at least cannot be made unless the names of the five 
great ocean eddies, the gulf stream, their direction and effect upon 
the climate of the countries are taught. The work of waves, the 
beneficial and harmful effect of currents and the cause and use of 
tides should be made clear to all members of the class. Let this 
work be supplemented by studying drawings and cuts found in 
physical geographies. A careful study of the pictures and diagrams 
found in the text and in reference works should be made until the 
pupils understand^ all the author tried to show by them. Remem- 
ber that a picture or cut is not inserted in a book^ unless it teaches 
more than could be taught by using the same space for printed 
matter. 

d. Blackboard outline map. Every school should have a black- 
board outline map of the United States mounted on a common roll- 
er. It is particularly useful for the work in geography and history. 
It can be secured from any school supply company. Price, 72x50 
inch, $2.60. Blackboard outline maps of the other countries may be 
had for the same or for a lower price. 

e. Intensive study. After this portion of the book is completed, 
a detailed study of the United States and Wisconsin should occupy 
the attention of the class for the remainder of the year. An inten- 
sive study of any country demands at least four things: 

(1) The physical, political, and commercial features thor- 
oughly fixed by systematic map work. 

(2) A neatly kept notebook which contains large and un- 
usual things. 

(3) The reciting of the subject matter found in the text and 
that given by the teacher. 

(4) Collateral reading from the library and current period- 
icals applicable to the country being studied. 

f. Map work lays a foundation. Good map work lays a founda- 
tion for other work and without this foundation the pupil gets very 
little permanent worth from the study of geography. Before the 
map work of a section of country is commenced, however, the atten- 
tion of the class should be called to relative distances, shapes and 
proportions, the direction of rivers and the direction of one natural 
feature from another. The condition of the coast line and the more 
evident reasons for the location of cities and industries in them 
should be pointed out. After this analysis, which should properly 
take place from wall maps and maps in the text, the pupils should 
be assigned a section of the map for the next day's study. They 
should practice upon this map until it can be accurately sketched 
from memory on the blackboard or paper the following day. Be- 
sides this work the teacher should assign to the pupils only such 



180 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

natural features, cities and objects as she expects the pupils to re- 
member and to know something more about than their location. 
The average geography will direct the teacher as to material but it 
usually does this without any particular order. It seems best that 
it should be arranged in the order found in the following the coast 
line or river systems, and that the pupils should write it in their 
notebooks. Many places given in texts will need to be eliminated 
and only those should be given that are to be remembered for life. 
g. liibrai'y reading. Readings from library books dealing with 
certain countries or with certain industries, physical features, etc. 
should be reported upon while the class is studying the particular 
countries, industries, or special features. The following plan will 
systematize the library reading and tend to insure a definite amount 
of this line of work being done: 



Name 



Sept. 



Oct. 



Nov. 



Dec. 



Wra. McCorkle 


1 


3 


8 


6 


Gretehen Wolfing- 


3 


5 


4 


7 


Beulah James 


5 


6 


7 


8 



Wm. McCorkle will report Sept. 1st, Oct. 3rd, Nov. 8th, and Dec. 
6th. He and all other members of the class and the teacher know 
when he is to report. There is no misunderstanding about the fact 
of a report being given, about the time it is to be given, or any one 
of the many things often occurring to prevent library work. The 
names of all pupils in the class and the dates on which the book re- 
ports are to be given should be posted, if possible, for a period of 
three or four months in advance of the time the reports are to be 
given. As soon as a report on one book is given the pupil should 
select, with the advice of the teacher, another book for the next re- 
port. The teacher, of course will know in advance the section of 
country on which the map and textbook work will be done so that 
a library book may be selected dealing with some phase of the 
country to be studied. Not only books but topics, such as icebergs, 
salt lakes, caves, railroad coaches, wool, etc., may be made the sub- 
ject of a report. For these reports the card catalog should be used. 
In this way the student can get all the material in the library on 
any one of these subjects. 

li. Steps in a book report. Book reports should be brief, well 
arranged and animated. To assist in making these reports valuable 
the following order of presentation is suggested: , 

(1) Name of book 

(2) Name of author 

(3) State in general what the book treats of and name the 
great divisions of it 



GEOGRAPHY 181 



(4) Give an intensive report of some certain part most ap- 
plicable to the country, industries, and objects studied in the regular 
text, 

(5) State why you like or dislike the book 

i. Library lessons. Teach the lessons indicated for the sixth 
and seventh grade geography classes on page 19 of Lessons on the 
Use of the School Library. 

j. Topical Recitations. Many young people are timid about 
making a topical recitation such as is called for in a book report 
and, because of this fact, recite in sentences and parts of sentences. 
To help overcome this timidity and to assist them in connective 
thinking, the teacher should have the pupils observe such directions 
as the following: 

(1) Stand in front of and face the class 

(2) The weight of the body should rest largely upon the strong 
foot or the foot that is slightly advanced 

(3) Give the proper bodily movements and facial expressions 
to convey the thought of the author 

(4) Speak from a very few notes, or, better still, speak with- 
out the use of any notes 

(5) Look into the eyes of those spoken to and not on the floor 
or out of the window 

(6) Speak as though you were happy in making the report 

2. United States. 

a. New England States. Textbooks begin an intensive study of 
the United States with the New England group. The teacher and 
class, with textbooks open, should study them and observe the slope 
of the land and the location of large cities as determined by rivers 
and mountains. The lattitude, direction of winds, rough coast line, 
good harbors, many lakes, the general slope and size of states should 
be noted and inferences drawn as to the products, industries and 
exportations of this section. After this the teacher should assign, 
usually every day, a definite amount of map work and such natural 
features, cities, and objects as she expects the pupils to remember. 
The places in this group of states, their order of presentation, and at 
least one fact about each place worth remembering is given below. 
These should be assigned by the teacher and written by the pupils 
in their notebooks. This, together with the map work, is enough 
for one week's work. 

(1) St. Croix River; boundary between Main and New Bruns- 
wick 

(2) Penobscot river 

(3) Bangor — Head of navigation and the destination of logs 
that are floated down the Penobscot; also a great lumber market 

(4) Bath — Ship building 

(5) Kennebec River 

( 6 ) Augusta — Capital 

(7) Moosehead Lake 

(8) Portland — Metropolis of Maine, large trade in lumber and 
fish 



182 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



(9) Portsmouth — The only seaport of New Hampshire 

(10) Merrimac River — Turns more wheels than any other river 
in the world 

(11) Lowell, Lawrence, and Manchester — Manufacture of cotton 
and woolen cloth 

(12) Concord— capital 

(13) White Mountains — Some of its peaks are named after 
former presidents. Mt. Washing-ton is the highest. Prom it one can 
see the ocean 

(14) Lynn — Boots, shoes, and Jsather g-oods 

(15) Boston — Capital, excellent harbor, Paneuil Hall, Art gal- 
leries, and Bunker Hill 

(16) Cambridge— Harvard University 

(17) Plymouth- — Landing of the Pilgrims 

(18) Cape Cod — Pormed of sand and g-lacial drift 

(19) Martha's Vineyard — Noted summer resort 

(20) Pall River — Eastern terminus of steamship line from New 
York to Boston 

(21) Narragansett Bay — Note the number of its branches 

(22) Providence — Capital, noted for the manufacture of silver- 
ware and jewelry 

(23) Long Island Sound — Next to Chesapeake Bay the most im- 
portant oyster g-rounds in the world 

(24) Long- Island — A larg-e island belonging- to the state of New 
York 

(25) Connecticut River — Plows through a rich valley and has 
large water power 

(26) Hartford — Capital, head of steamboat navigation on the 
Connecticut river 

(27) New Haven — Yale University 

, The pupils are now prepared to report upon readings from the 
library, textbooks, papers, etc., relating to the New England states; 
the map work has been completed. Special study should now be 
made of at least the following topics: 

(28) The great g-lacier 

(29) The sinking- coast line 

(30) Waterpower 

(31) Manufacture of cotton and woolen goods 

(32) Manufacture of shoes 

(33) Watch factories 

(34) Lumbering and forest products 

(35) Granite, marble, and slate 

(36) Truck gardening 

(37) Pish and other ocean food 

(38) Imports 

(39) Exports 

(40) Harvard, Yale, and Clarke Universities 

(41) Emerson, Thoreau, Hawthorne, Whittier, Lowell, and 

Longfellow 

(42) Summer resorts 

b. Other sections. The Middle, Atlantic, Southern, Central, 
and Western group of states should be studied in the same manner 
as the New England. 

3» Wisconsin. When Wisconsin is reached in the wectern group, 
special emphasis should be placed on its industries. The map work, 



GEOGRAPHY 183 

showing the coast line, at least the four great rivers, the portion 
drained by the St. Lawrence system and that drained by the Missis- 
sippi system, should be well done before the industrial and commercial 
features are attempted. 

a. Resource and industrial map. Have each student secure a 
sheet of paper about 22 x 28 inches. Bristol board is preferred and can 
be gotten from any printing office. On this paper sketch a map as 
large as possible showing the drainage systems of the state. The dif- 
ferent resources and industries should now be shown by pasting mini- 
ature pictures on the map covering the area engaged in them. When 
completed the map should show at least the areas engaged in the fol- 
lowing lines of work: 

(1) Dairying- (8) Pea canning- 

(2) Beef cattle (9) Lumbering 

(3) Corn (10) Paper and plup industry 

(4) Alfalfa (11) Mining- 

(5) Potatoes (12) Quarrying 

(6) Small fruits (13) Parks 

(7) Cranberrying . (14) The twelve largest cities 

As concrete a study as possible should be made of Wisconsin's pro- 
ducts. In many of the occupations and industries a 'collection of sam- 
ples should be encouraged. In others, advertising material is very help- 
ful and may be had for the asking. 

b. Make prominent the features in which Wisconsin excels. 
Let the map also show the state institutions such as the University, 
Normal Schools and those institutions that are cared for by the State 
Board of Control. Make prominent and place special stress upon the 
things in which Wisconsin excels. Information relative to these things 
will be furnished, upon application, by the State Board of Immigration, 
Madison, Wis. Write to this board for pamphlets and circulars. You 
cannot get the information contained in them from textbooks or from 
library books. Other helpful information may be secured from the 
College of Agriculture, Madison, Wis. 

c. Wisconsin raili'oad map. The railroad map of Wisconsin is 
a source of much information and is too often made little or no use of. 
From it the United States Land Survey may be effectively taught. 
Here is shown very nicely the base line, correction lines, and the num- 
bering of townships both north of the b|ase line and east and west of 
the 4th principal meridian. At least the five great railroads, — the C. 
M. & St. P., 0. and N. W., Soo, Burlington, and Green Bay and Western, 
— should be taught. These as well as many minor roads that are of im- 
portance locally can be better taught from this map than from any 
other. The map indicates many other things that should be taught 
from it. 

4, South America (odd numbered years) 

a. Type lesson. South America is rich in natural resources 
and offers many opportunities for people in the more densely populated 



184 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

countries of the old world and North America. Because of its resources 
and favorable climatic conditions it should not he treated in the meager 
way often found in texts. The same plan of slnWy should be followed 
as was used in the treatment of North America. The similarity be- 
tween the two continents should be observed. Both are triangular in 
shape and taper towards the south. The principal and secondary high- 
lands are on the same side and both continents lie largely in the tem- 
perate zone. These countries have, however, two striking differences— 
the rivers flow in opposite directions and South America is without 
many good harbors because of its smooth coast line. A type lesson 
for an intensive study of the country follows: 

(1) Mouths of the Amazon — For a distance of 2 00 miles the 
mouths are 50 miles wide 

(2) Amazon River— The largest river in the world; ocean 
steamers ascend it for 2,000 m.iles 

(3) Negro River — The Negro and Orinoco rivers rise in prac- 
tically the same place and flow in opposite directions 

(4) Maderia River — Rises in the Andes 

(5) Sucre — Capital of Bolivia 

(6) Lake Titicaca — Most elevated large lake in the world 

(7) Para — Seat of the rubber trade of the Amazon valley 

(8) Cape St. Roque 

(9) Pernambuco — Great shipping point for cotton, rice, sugar, 
and tobacco 

(10) San Francisco — The largest river in southeastern Brazil 

(11) Bahia — Exports much coffee 

(12) Rio de Janeiro— Capital of Brazil, and center of the coffee 
trade 

Now that the class has covered the map work and noted the physical 
and commercial centers, a careful study should b(e made of the follow- 
ing: 

(13) The Amazon river and forest growth in its basin 

(14) Valuable timber and dye woods 

(15) Forest products 

(16) Diamond mining 

(17) Inhabitants and their homes 

5. Eastern hemisphere 

a. Type lesson. After the general physical map work of the 
Eastern Hemisphere, a type lesson Norway in Europe would consist of: 

(l)North Cape — The most northern cape in Europe 

(2) Hammerfest — The most northern city of importance in the 
world; tourists go there to see the midnight sun. 

(3) Maelstrom — the largest whirlpool in the world 

(4) Trondhjem Fiord — the largest fiord on the Norwegian 
coast 

(5) Kjolen Mountains- — on the boundary line between Norway 
and Sweden 

(6) Bergen — noted for its fisheries 

(7) The Naze — the most southern point of Norway 

(8) Skagerrack — a very rough and dangerous strait 

(9) Christiana— Capital of Norway 



GEOGRAPHY 185 

The special topics to be considered now are 

(10) The lumber and fish industries 

(11) Ship building- 

(12) Forest products 

(13) The fiords and waterpower of the rivers 

(14) Exports and imports of the country 

(15) Characteristics of the people 

b. Division of the year's work. About two-thirds of the year's 
work should be devoted to South America and Europe, and one-third of 
the time to Asia, Africa and Australia. 

A few weeks' work should be devoted at the close of the seventh grade 
to a review of the large things of the world such as winds, commercial 
routes, exports, imports, social standards, etc. 

6. Mathematical geography 

a. The Solar System. The relation of the earth to the other 
planets in the solar system is a fascinating study to mature pupils, but 
should not be undertaken until the latter part of the geography course. 

Teach the pupils what is meant by the solar system and what by the 
universe. Have them name the planets of the solar system and study 
them as to size and distance from the sun. It is here that the falling 
stars and comets should be studied until the pupil knows what they 
'are and that both come from outside the solar system into it. 

b. The movements of the earth. Fix in the minds of the pu- 
pils the two movements of the earth in the solar system. Use the globe 
in doing this. The pupils must always keep the axis of the earth point- 
ing north while they are rotating and revolving it. Show tliat the axis 
is inclined 23 1^ degrees to the plane of its orbit and not inclined to the 
north star or simply inclined as is sometimes taught. Let a pupil rep- 
resent the sun. Revolve the globe around him, always observing the 
position of the axis. Hold the globe so that it is June 1st in the 
Northern Hemisphere. Have pupils point with pencil to the place 
where it is noon June 1st; P. M., June 1st, etc. Have the globe 
moved in the correct direction to the position of December 1st. Now 
let a pupil rotate the globe so that it is noon to him at his home in 
Wisconsin. Direct the pupils as follows: 

Catharine, point to your position with reference to the sun at mid^- 
nig-ht. Where will you be at 3 A. M.? Where at 9 P. M. 

Carol, rotate and revolve the globe so that it is 3 P. M. to you Sep- 
tember 21st. 

Ask others what is meant by the heat equator; the geographical 
equator. 

Which one do people usually mean when speaking of the equator? 
Are either of the equators movable, Helen? If so, which one; 

What is the position of the heat equator to the geographical 
equator June 21st in the Northern Hemisphere? What the position 
of the two equators March 21st? 

Over what part of the earth does the sun always shine? 



186 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

Have one pupil represent the sun, another the earth and a third the 
moon. The three should now give the movements of the three heavenly- 
bodies. As the pupils move, ask otiier pupils to give the time of year 
or the time of year to the pupil representing the earth. Have one 
member of the class ask others the time of the season and the time of 
day as represented by some place on his body. Many other questions of 
a similar nature should be asked. Move objects and have the pupils 
move so as to show how we have an eclipse of the sun and moon. The 
Standard Time Belt and the International Date Line are not difficult to 
understand and should be taught by the use of the globe and good maps 
that show the time belts. The pupils should understand and be able to 
explain why in traveling east the watch must be set ahead and in travel- 
ing west set back. 



III. TESTS FOR GRADUATION 

At the close of the work in Geography the pupil should be able: 

1. To enumerate at least ten ways in which North and South 
America are similar; 

2. To enumerate the uses of water as a power and as a means 
of communication; 

3. (a) To give the location of the great salt lakes and the cause 
of them; 

(b) To enumerate the great forest sections of the country 
from which lumber and woods used in furniture are procured; 

4. To name the dairy sections, the beef sections, the mining sec- 
tions, the corn sections, and the commercial sections of the world; 

5. To describe the general circulation of air, what is meant by 
high and low areas, and the causes of the rainfall regions of the 
world. 

6. To name the exports of the leading countries of the world; 

7. To name the principal imports of the United States; 

8. To sketch a map of any continent, group of states or important 
river systems studied; 

9. To sketch a map showing the great industry sections of Wis- 
consin; 

10. To name the great commercial centers and natural features 
of the world. 



GEOGRAPHY 187 



IV. REFERENCES 

1. References for pupils 

Carpenter. Geographical reader. Europe. (T) 
Carpenter. Geographical reader. North America. (T) 
Carpenter. Geographical reader. South America (T) 
Carpenter. How the world is clothed. (T) 
Carpenter. How the world is fed. (T) 
Fairbanlts. Stories of our Mother Earth. (T) 
Frye. Home geography and type studies. Ginn 
Klrby & Kirby. Aunt Martha's corner cupboard. (T) 
Rocheleau. Great American Industries. (T) 
Tootliakcr. Commercial raw materials. (T) 

2. References for teachers 

Champlin. Cyclopedia of common things. (T) 

Champlin. Cyclopedia of persons and places. (T) 

Dodge. A reader in physical geography. (T) 

Farmers' instilnte bulletins. Address E. L. Luther, Supt. Far- 
mers' Institutes, Madison, Wis. 

Gillan. Lessons in Mathematical Geography. S. Y. Gillan, 
Milwaukee. 

Now students' reference work. F. E. Compton & Co., Chicago. 

Rice. Lessons on the use of the school library. Issued by the 
State Superintendent, Madison, Wis. 

Standard reference work. Welles Brothers' Publishing Co., 
Chicago. 

Sutherland. The teaching of geography. (T) 

Woi-'lcJl almanac and encyclopedia. (T) 

Any good physical geogi'aphy. 

Teachers should be .constantly on the watch for valuable new 
books as they appear. 



188 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



NATURE STUDY 



I. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 

1. Nature study and agriculture are too closely related subjects. 
The agriculture which is now a required subject in all district 
schools is especially adapted to the upper grades, while nature study 
is especially valuable in the earlier grades. It is not necessary to 
fix exact grade limits, but the nature study idea should be given 
chief prominence in the first six grades. This study should be 
gradually merged into agriculture which should be treated as a 
special subject in seventh and eighth grades. Agricultural legisla- 
tion in Wisconsin as well as general practice throughout the coun- 
try have come to be based upon this general plan of division. This 
need not mean that pupils below seventh grade can have no part 
in the lessons and projects in agriculture, nor that seventh and 
eighth grade pupils should have no share in the nature lessons. 
With all the grades in one department as in the typical rural school, 
the nature lessons can best be given as a rule to the whole school. 
A special class should be organized in agriculture for the combined 
seventh and eighth grades. 

2. Place on program. While former manuals have not assigned 
a definite place on the daily program to the nature study, it is be- 
lieved that the subject now demands such a place. It is believed 
also that the agriculture should have a larger place than hereto- 
fore. It is therefore recommended that in all rural schools, the time 
of a regular class^ or five periods a week, he given to these subjects 
during the fall and winter months. Of these five periods, two periods 
a week shouM lie devoted to the nature study and three periods to 
the agriculture. During the winter months one period a week may 
he given to agriculture and one to the nature study. See suggestive 
program, p. 15. During the winter months, the nature work 
should deal to quite an extent with simple experiments and studies 
in elementary science. 

3. Viewpoint. Nature study should furnish the fundamental 
subject matter of education because it deals with the materials 
which constitute very largely the real world of every child. From 
this world must come that concrete experience out of which every 
child must construct much of his later conscious and emotional life. 



NATURE STUDY 189 

What the child needs is not so much information about nature as 
sympathetic acquaintance and understanding of her ways in rela- 
tion to himself. He needs also an awakened appreciation of the 
significance and meaning of the world of things upon which the 
concepts of life are so largely based. Direct o'bservation of real things 
ty the pupils is therefore the essential T)asis of all nature work. It is 
the business of the school to provide for a large amount of such 
observation. Teachers who go into the country schools should be- 
come thoroughly familiar with this rural environment go that they 
may be able to bring pupils into sympathetic relationship with it. 
The well-equipped rural teacher must know and appreciate this 
material as well as the usual studies. 

4. Method. The method of the nature lesson should be that ot 
a conversation exercise rather than that of the usual recitation in 
which pupils recite a lesson prepared from a text. Pupils should 
be led by skillful questions and suggestions to talk about the things 
they have seen. Questions and problems should be aroused and pu- 
pils should be encouraged to ask questions. As often as possible the 
children should be led to answer these questions by their own ob- 
servations. In the world of things and especially of life what in- 
terests the child most is activity.; This should be the guide in the 
method of developing any topic. Whife this should guide in the 
approach, there should be also the aim to round up definite and 
accurate knowledge and bring the pupil into sympathetic relation- 
ship with it. 



n. OUTLINE OF TOPICS 

The selection and treatment of topics in these outlines are based 
rather upon the seasonal plan than upon logical organization of 
subject matter. For this purpose topics are developed under the 
three seasonal divisions — fall, winter and spring, these being the 
seasons during which the schools are in session. The aim is to show 
teachers as nearly as possible what may be done during each of these 
seasons. Although it is more difllcult than in most subjects to fix 
'exact limits to the number of lessons to be devoted to each topic, 
nevertheless effort has been made to give as close an idea as pos- 
sible. Although two periods a week during fall and spring have 
been definitely assigned to this work as a regular part of the daily 
program, yet if proper interest is aroused much will be done at odd 
times in the way of collecting and observing material and discussing 
questions which arise. It may also be wise to use a general exer- 
cise period quite often for planning the work with the pupils or for 
general discussion. 

No text is needed in the hands of the pupils, but two or more 
general texts should be in the hands of the teacher as a source of 



190 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

fuller information and direction than are possible in these outlines. 
The following are recommended: 

Hodge. Nature study and life. (T) 
Comstock. Handbook of nature study. (T) 

Coulter-Patterson. Practical nature study and elementary agricul- 
ture. Appleton. 

Bailey. The nature study idea. (T) 

Nearly all the hooks referred to under "References" are fully 
described in *the Township Library List which should be in every 
country school. 



FALL TOPICS — SEPTEMBER, OCTOBER, NOVEMBER 

1. Bii'ds. As much out-of-door observation as possible including 
at least one field trip. Three or four indoor lessons, extended over 
the whole three months. 

a. Materials: Pictures, books. See Spring Bird Study. 
h. Lesson Outline. 

(1) Acquaintance. Have pupils report birds seen and give color- 
ing as cJosely as possible. Take the pupils out for bird observations 
as often as possible. In beginning bird observations in the field, it 
is very important to learn to approach with great care in attempting 
to ii^e a bird that has been located. The observer should circle 
around the position of the bird rather than go directly toward it. 
Often the best way to see birds is to stay quietly in a sheltered spot 
near some good bird haunt and wait for the birds to come around. 
If the observer keeps quiet enough they will often become quite 
friendly. 

Get pupils to report what they can about birds that have nested 
about their homes, describing habits of nest building, flight, food, 
songs, calls, etc. Emphasize kindness shown the birds in furnishing 
bird houses, food, protection from enemies. 

Some new birds not seen in spring such as the nuthatch, brown 
creeper, downy woodpecker, etc., may be seen in the fall. 

(2) Food. Insects of field or garden, fruits, grain left in the 
fields, wild rice on the swamps, weed seeds. Have children observe 
carefully wild fruits eaten and call attention to the need of furnish- 
ing these to protect the cultivated fruits. Have wild fruits that 
birds are observed to eat brought in for examination and identifica- 
tion. 

Let several older pupils prepare a food chart which may be 
hung on the wall and on which may be recorded information 
gathered by pupils about food of different birds. See Hodge — p. 323. 

Impress the importance of accuracy in observations. On account 
of faulty and superficial observations, birds are often charged with 



NATURE STUDY 191 

harm for which they are not to blame. For example, woodpeckers 
are charged with damaging trees when they are really protecting 
them by capturing harmful insects about the bark. Caution pupils 
about making too sweeping conclusions about food habits. Check 
up observations by consulting authorities. See References. 

(3) Songs and calls. These constitute the language of the 
birds ard are most interesting and valuable in distinguishing differ- 
ent kinds. When one is afield, the first warning of the presence of 
a bird is often its song or call. Almost every emotion is expressed 
in these sounds. Have pupils notice these and report as far as 
possible. Songs can be imitated often either in syllables or by 
whistling. 

(4) Protection. Among the worst enemies of birds, have 
been boys and men who hunt and shoot or collect eggs. Emphasize 
the special harm of collecting eggs. Discuss other enemies. See 
Burrough — Birds and bees. Arouse desire to protect the birds, so 
they may come back again another spring. Sum up the usefulness 
of birds as shown from their food habits. It is a good plan to have 
some of the pupils look up and report on the usefulness of particular 
birds or groups of birds, securing their information from farmers' 
bulletins, bird books, etc. See references under this topic. 

Call attention to the work of the Audubon Society. See Arbor and 
Bird Day Anauals: 1904, p. 21; 1906, p. 23; 1907, p. 47; 1915, 
p. 62. See also Agri. Yearbook 1902. Many valuable leaflets on 
bird protection may be obtained at ^/^c each, by writing to the 
National Secretary of the Audubon Society, 19 74 Broadway, New 
York City. Let some pupil write for these. Arbor day Annual, 
1913, p. 33. 

(5) Bird laws. It is an offense punishable by fine or 
imprisonment for any person within the state of Wisconsin unless 
specially authorized, to kill, injure or have in his possession at any 
time, any wild birds other than game birds, and not including 
blackbirds, crows, English sparrows, sharpshinned hawks, cooper's 
hawks and owls. 

The following are considered game birds: wild goose, brant, wild 
duck, American coot or mud hen, w.od duck, wood cock, plover, 
snipe, rail, rice hen, partridge or ruffed grouse, sharp tailed grouse. 
Magnolian, Chinese and English pheasant, Hungarian partridge, 
quail or bob-white., Certain open seasons are provided when these 
game birds may be taken for food. 

The law also makes it an offence for any person to take or need- 
lessly destroy or have in his possession the nest or eggs of any wild 
bird, for which a closed season is provided. 

Laws up to and including 1911 are given in the 1913 Arbor and 
Bird Day Annual, p. 47. These laws are still substantially in force 
although they were revised in 1915 in connection wUh the new 
Conservation Commission. Let some pupil send for i copy of the 



192 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

latest Fish and Game Laws of Wisconsin to the State Conservation 
Commission, Madison. Read and study Longfellow's Birds of Kil- 
lingworth in relation to bird protection. 

(6) Migration. Ask pupils about the decrease of birds as 
winter approaches. Where< and why do they go? Let some older 
pupil look this topic up and present a special report to the school. 
See Chapman — Bird Life. Also Farmers' Institute Bulletin foi 
1901, p. 105. Read and study Bryant's "To a Water Fowl". 

(7) Bird census. After the leaves have fallen, have pupils 
see how many abandoned nests can be found about their homes. 
Let each one make a chart showing trees, shrubbery, etc., and 
indicating location and kinds of nests as far as possible. For fuller 
suggestions see Hodge, p. 320; also Arbor and Bird Day Annual 
1913, p; 88-89. Preserve the record for comparison with later years 
to ,see how much increase of birds is shown. 

c. Supplementary topic — Game birds. Special study may be 
given to this group. Study the State Fish and Game Laws. Have 
reports on these and emphasize the importance of obeying the laws. 
See Farmers' Bulletin No. 69 2 on Game Laws for 1915. 

d. References. 

Hodge, p. 305-363; Coulter-Patterson, p. 303-313; Comstock. 

p. 25-147. 
Chapman. Bird life. 
Reed. Bird guides (T). 
Farmers' bulletins. Nos. 54, 456, 493, ^97, 506, 513, 609, 621, 630, 

692. 
Agricultural yearbooks. 1900, 1902, 1903, 1904, 1906, 1908, 1910, 

1912, 1913. 
See also Township library list, p. 54. 

2. Insects. Several field trips and four or more conversation ex- 
ercises with such work, at odd times as pupils can 'be interested to do. 
Begin about the middle of September and alternate with the bird work. 

a. Materials. Pictures (Mumford collection and in books.), cat- 
erpillars, chrysalises, cocoons, and other insect material collected by 
teacher and pupils, feeding boxes for caterpillars. Pasteboard shoe 
boxes are good for insects which do not form the pupa in the ground. 
Cut out rectangular pieces from opposite sides or from top and 
bottom and paste in mosquito netting or cheese cloth. Chalk boxes 
stood on end and filled half full of mellow earth, and provided with 
mosquito netting on two sides above the earth, may be used for 
forms that require earth. A few mason jars or large bottle are 
desirable for collecting material. A terrarium can be made. See 
Coulter-Patterson p. 172-173. 

For those who desire to undertake preserving and mounting 
material — see suggestions in Hodge, Chap. Ill; also Farmers' Bulle- 
tin No. 607, Preserving Insect Material for use in Agriculture. 

b. Lesson outline on moths and butterflies. If possible begin 
the work by taking a field trip with the pupils to some garden on a 
sunshiny day. Observe butterflies flying and suckling nectar from 



NATURE STUDY 193 

the flowers. Examine a flower and flnd the nectar. Look for cater- 
pillars on garden plants; cabbage butterfly on cabbage or nastur- 
tium; carrot worm or black swallow tail on carrots, celery, parsley or 
parsnip; yellow-bear caterpillar and tiger moth on almost any 
herbaceous garden plant; milkweed caterpillar or monarch butterfly 
on common wilkweed; tomato worm or hawk moth on tomato and 
another closely allied form on tobacco. Look also for eggs found 
most easily on cabbage, nasturtium or milkweed. Butterflies may 
often be seen depositing the eggs. 

Ask pupils to look at home for caterpillars and bring them to 
school to be fed and observed. The mourning cloak may sometimes 
be found on the leaves of poplar. It is important to notice the food 
on which the caterpillars are feeding when captured. All forms 
collected should be put into airy boxes where they can be fed till 
they have changed to the pupa form. The tomato worm and tobacco 
worm will require several inches of moist earthy in the bottom of 
the b^x, since they form their pupae in the ground. Caterpillars 
of some of the large moths such as Cecropia, Polyphemus and Luna 
are sometimes found crawling on side walks, fences or tree trunks. 
When so found they have generally ceased to feed and are looking 
for a place to spin their cocoons. If put into an airy box, this won- 
derfully interesting process may be observed within a day or two 
and then the cocoons may be kept till spring when the emergence 
of the moth may be seen. Scarcely anything in nature can arouse 
more interest than these insect transformations. Encourage pupils 
to bring food and make daily observations on the material collected. 
Keep problems before the pupils as a motive and as a means of 
directing their observations. For example: See if you can find out 
how the caterpillar eats. 

c. Conversation lesson on the caterpillar. If there are not too 
many pupils, this lesson can best be given with the children gathered 
about a table where material can be observed and talked about. 

Ask such questions as the following: Where were the caterpillars 
found? How do you suppose they got there? How could the mother 
know where to put the eggs? Were the caterpillars harming or 
helping the plant? How do you suppose the caterpillar breathes? 
(Openings in the side of the body.) How does he move? How could 
you destroy harmful caterpillars? As caterpillars grow they shed 
their skins. Have pupils see if they can flnd cast off skins. 

Lead pupils to keep close watch to see the caterpillars begin their 
transformation to the pupa. Butterflies attach themselves to the side 
or top of the box by a thread and then form a naked pupa called a 
chrysalis. Most moths spin a cocoon of silk and form a pupa inside. 

Round lip all that has been learned by adequate review and drill. 
Make use of stories and poems. Other lessons of similar character 
should be given on the pupa and the adult forms as soon as these 
have been observed. 

13 — S. M. 



194 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

The cabbage and the milkweed butterflies complete their whole 
life history within a few weeks, except where the pupae form very- 
late in the fall. Trace through the entire life history of one form: 
egg, caterpillar, cocoon or chrysalis. Adult cocoons and chrysalises 
of forms which do not come out in the fall should be put away care- 
fully in a cool place and kept for spring study. 
d. Supplementary topics 

(1) Other insect topics such as grasshoppers, crickets, flies 
and mosquitoes, ants, bees and wasps and beetles furnish valuable 
material for study. Emphaize especially flies and mosquitoes in re- 
lation to cleanliness and disease. See references. "Spiders" is also 
a good topic in this connection. Coulter-Patterson p. 159. 

(2) Special forms of practical importance. May be assigned 
to older pupils for special topics. 

(a) Codling Moth. Farm. Bui. No. 247; Agri. Yearbook 
1907. 

(b) Colorado Potato Beetle. Cir. 8 7, U. S. Dept. of Agri. 
Bur. of Entomology. 

(c) June Bug Beetle (white grub) Farm. Bui. 543 

(d) Tent-tree Caterpillar. Farm. Bui. 662 

(e) The Gypsy and Brown-tail Moth. Farm. Bui. 564 

(f) The 'Clothes Moth. Farm. Bui. 659. 

(g) The Gypsy Moth. Farm. Bui. 275 

(h) Annual Loss from Insects in U. S. Yearbook 1904, p. 
461-474;also Separate No. 360. 

(i) Relation between Birds and Insects. Yearbook 1908, 
p. 343-350 

(j) The Plum Curculio. Cir. 73, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bur. 
of Entomology 

(k) The Grasshopper Problem. Cir. 84, U. S. Dept. of Agri., 
Bur. of Entomology 

(1) Mites and Lice on Poultry. Cir. 92, U. S. Dept. of 
Agri., Bur. of Entomology 

(m) Usefulness of the American Toad. Farm. Bui. 19 6 

3. Tree Study. Should he taken up about the time the leaves hegin 
to change color. Three or more excursions and four or more conver- 
sation lessons. Leaves and fruits may he used for drawing exercises. 
See draming outlines. 

a. Materials. Leaves, fruits and twigs gathered on excursions 
and by pupils at odd times. Tree and leaf pictures. See Mumford 
set. Also in tree books. See references. 

b. Lesson Outline. 

(1) Observation and acquaintance. 

(a) List of.tretes: Oak (white, red, black, swamp white, 
chestnut, bur, scarlet, scrub), maple (hard, soft, Norway, black, 
red), elm, basswood, horse chestnut, box elder, ash (white, black, 
green, red), catalpa, hickory, walnut, butternut, birch (white, paper, 



NATURE STUDY 19 5 

red, yellow), poplar (cottonwood, balsam or balm of Gilead, silver- 
leaf, aspen, large-toothed aspen, Lombardy), catalpa, mulberry. 

(b) Out-of-door trips. During out-of-door trips lead pupils 
to notice and admire the trees. Talk about their beauty and uses; 
shade, homes for animals, decoration, lumber, nuts and fruit. Pick 
out favorite trees and in this connection give the names of several. 
Study these as to characteristics; general appearance of tree tcp, 
of the bark, of the leaves, collect leaves and fruits. 

(c) Home observations. Have pupils find out the kindo of 
shade trees at home and why each was planted. Have them count 
the number of each kind. As the leaves take on their beautiful 
colors have pupils bring in attractive specimens and press some, 
keeping others for use in class for drawing and study. 

(d) Preserving specimens. Interest pupils to preserve some 
beautiful leaves at home by sprinkling a little powdered rosin over 
the surface and then ironing with an ordinary hot fiatiron. Sucli 
specimens may be brought to school for use in decoration, or the 
work may be done at school if conveniences can be provided. 

(2) Conver'sation lesson 

(a) Review and round up what has been learned. Test 
pupil's recognition of leaves by name. Test recognition of tree 
pictures and leaves or leaf prints. Review what trees do for us and 
which kinds are favorites. 

(b) How trees live, (Brief general study.) Roots furnish 
mouths to get food from soil. Leaves serve as breathing organs 
and help prepare food. Trunk and branches transport food and 
spread leaves out to the light. 

(c) Sketch leaves and label. (Do in drawing class if 
possible.) 

(d) Assign a particular tree to each pupil for a written de- 
scription. 

Put this outline on the board as a guide and ask each to observe 
his tree carefully before writing. Use this in the language work. 

(3) Tree description 

(a) Name: abundance in locality 

(b) General appearance: spreading, compact, loose, uni- 
form, irregular, drooping, erect 

(c) Bark: color, cracks, peeling, roughness, how does the 
old bark differ from the young; notice spots on the young bark 
(breathing pores) 

(d) Branching: dose the main trunk extend to top of trees? 
Is branching y shaped or elbow form? (Oak an example of elbow 
form) 

(e) Leaves: shape, color, margin, compound or simple, 
divided, lobed or entire, hairy or smooth, arrangement (alternate 
or opposite) 

(f) Fruit or seed — describe if found 

(g) Usefulness and importance 



196 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

(4) Use of trees for wood, lumber, shade, nuts, etc. Which 
grow faster, hard or soft woods? Which are more desirable to 
plant? Show pupils that rapid growing trees are more easily 
damaged by wind and storm and are much less likely to form a 
beautiful tree. If soft woods are planted to get quick growth, hard 
woods should be planted at the same time. Then the soft woods 
may be cut down when the better trees have grown. 

c. Tests in naming trees. Give the pupils many tests at odd 
times out-of-doors in giving correct names of trees at a glance. 
Stimulate rivalry here. A more formal test may be given by giving 
a series of trees numbers and asking pupils .to write the correct name 
with the corresponding number. This may be done also in the school- 
room using pictures and leaf specimens. Older pupils should get to 
know twenty or more trees the first year of this study, and ten addi- 
tional ones each year till they know most of the trees of the region. 
Younger pupils should learn eight or ten the first year and new ones 
each year. Pupils should also learn the common shrubs. 

d. References. 

Hodge, Coulter-Patterson, and Conistock for source material. 

Keeler. Ournative trees (T). 

Keeler. Ournorthern shrubs (T). 

Stokes. Ten common trees. 

Arbor and Bird Day manuals. 

Tree pictures. A. W. Mumford, Publishers, Chicag-o. 

4. Fall flowers. Several out-of-door trips for observing and gath- 
ering flowers, one or more inside lessons if there is time. A good deal 
of directed observation Ity the pupils at odd times. 

a. Materials: Books and pictures for identification. Weed books 
and bulletins will help. See references. 

b. Lesson outline. 

(1) Acquaintance and beauty are to be given chief emphasis 
here. Weed study in the agriculture class will emphasize the econ- 
omic viewpoint. Utilize flowers collected as far as possible for 
bouquets to beautify the schoolroom. Guard against the tendency 
to pluck every flower in sight, carry it a short time and then throw 
it down to wither and die. A number of fall flowers are poisonous 
and this fact should be developed. 

(2) List of showy fall flowers: golden rod, aster, wild sun- 
flower, black-eyed Susans, oxeye daisy, common milkweed, butterfly 
weed, swamp milkweed, bush clover, blazing star, rosin weed or 
prairie dock, wild verbena, fire weed, iron weed, cardinal lobelia, 
great blue lobelia, corn cockle (seeds and plant poisonous), common 
St. John's wort, evening primrose, tall buttercup (in northen Wis- 
consin), bouncing bet, yarrow, tancy, daisy fleabane, toad flax, 
chicory, Jimson weed (plant, flower and seed poisonous), snow on 
the mountain or marginate euphorbia (juice and nectar poisonous), 
ehicory, fringed gentian, closed gentian. For other poisonous plants 
see Hodge 102-118. 



194. 
134. 



NATURE STUDY 197 

(3) Lessons 

(a) Detailed study of golden rod. Coulter-Patterson, p. 

(b) Detailed study of dandelion. Coulter-Patterson, p. 



(c) Study of the Composite head, — use garden sunflower if 
available. Black-eyed Susan or aster will do. Distinguish ray and 
disk flowers. Compare with spring flowers. In specimens of wild 
aster or dandelion see how the seed is provided with a downy para- 
chute attached to the seed by a stalk. Show how this works and 
bring out advantages. 

c. Tests in naming flowers. Tests as under tree study. Older 
pupils should learn to know at least twenty kinds the first year and 
increase the number each year, younger pupils eight-ten kinds the 
first year and more each year. 

d. Supplmentary topic. Seed distrihution: aster, thistle, bur- 
dock, golden rod, box elder, common milkweed, beggars ticks. See 
references below. 

e. References 

Hodge. Chap. VI (T); Coulter-Patterson, p. 191; Comstock, p. 

489-595. (T . 
Reed. Flower g-uide, Doubleday. Many colored pictures. 
Dana. How to know the wild flowers (T) 
Dana. How to know the wild flowers (T). 
Beal. Seed dispersal, Ginn. 
Pictures in colors: A. W. Mumford, Chicago ; Perry Picture Co., 

Maiden, Mass. 

5. Tlie common toad. This is a most interesting and valuable 
topic. Scientists after careful study have shown that a single toad 
is worth approximately $19.88 annually on account of the harmful 
insects it destroys. The topic should be started in time so that a 
few toads may be kept in the schoolroom for observation and then 
put back out-of-doors in some garden before freezing weather begins. 
The observations must be made also when plenty of insect material 
is available for food. 
a. Materials 

(1) A box or terrarium for keeping adult toads in comfort- 
able condition. The box should be a convenient size and supplied 
with a tight cover hinged on. In the box should be placed a moist 
sod and a flat dish containing water. The sod must not be allowed 
to dry out. Part of the front side of the box should be cut out and 
replaced by a glass so as to make it possible to watch toads captur- 
ing food. 

(2) Several adult toads, flies, caterpillars, grubs, angleworms, 
etc., for feeding toads. 

b. Lesson outline. Emphasize how the toad lives: movement, 
breathing, seeing, hearing, burrowing and especially habit of cap- 
turing food. Toads eat only live food and capture it only when in 



198 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

motion. Encourage children to secure food material; place it in 
the box near the toads, and then watch the toads capture it by 
means of the forked tongue which is attached in front. 

One or two formal lessons will be enough to round up what the 
pupils have learned. Be sure the toads are put out in some garden 
before freezing. Emphasize importance of protection from cruel 
treatment, bonfires, etc. 
c. References 

Hodge. Chap. XVI. (T). Comstock p. 181 (T) ; Farmers' Uilletin 
No. 196. Usefulness of the American toad; Arlior Day Annual, 1914. 
"The Tale of a Toad." 

6. Supplementary topics for fall 

a. Miscellaneous topics. The following topics can be made in- 
teresting and valuable but space does not permit detailed outlines: 
Mushrooms, house moulds, mosses, ferns and lichens, green scums, 
snails, slugs, turtles, snakes. 

For pictures of mushrooms see Arbor and Bird Day Annuals 1911, 
1912, 1913, 1915. 

b. Garden Work. Let the younger pupils have a part with 
the older ones in the fall exhibit. See under agriculture. 

Winter Topics — December, January, February 

1. Birds. Individual observations and reports and one or more 
special lessons. 

a. Acquaintance 

(1) List of possible winter birds: White-breasted nuthatch, 
red-breasted nuthatch, downy woodpecker, hairy woodpecker, blue 
jay, Canada jay (in the north), chickadee, evening grosbeak, pine 
grosbeak, snow flake, red poll, crow, hawks, owls. 

(2) Have pupils report birds seen and give coloring as close- 
ly as possible. Get reports also about what the birds were doing. 
Use pictures for identification and further study of coloring. (Mum- 
ford pictures. Arbor & Bird Day Annuals, Chester A. Reed's Bird 
Guides). See general list of references. 

b. Food and protection. Tack up a piece of suet or fat meat 
on the trunk of some tree near the schoolroom window to attract 
the birds. Get pupils to do this at home. This gives a fine chance 
to make the acquaintance of the nuthatches, downy woodpeckers, 
blue jays and Isometimes the chickadees. Put up a "lunch coun- 
ter" in some sheltered place and supply it with food. Read such 
stories as "The Birds Christmas" (chickadee) in Poulsson's Child 
World, also stories of winter birds in Lovejoy's "Nature in Verse." 
Develop spirit of sympathy and protection. See Farmers' bulletin 
No, 609 on lunch counters. 

c. References. See general references: Hodge, Comstock, 
Coulter-Patterson. See also references under fall and spring bird 
study. Arbor and Bird Day Annual, 1907, p. 21, "Winter Birds 
in Wisconsin." , 



NATURE STUDY " 199 

2. Cone bearing trees. Oliservations of trees at home. A few 
out-of-door trips to see evergreens in or near the school grounds and 
collect leaves and cones. Two or more lessons on cones, leaves and 
general study. Draioing exercises sketching leaves, cones and trees. 

a. Acquaintance. Have pupils find out kinds at home. Note 
differences in general appearance, branching, leaves, cones. Iden- 
tify by means of books and pictures. 

List: White pine, yellow pine, Scotch pine, Norway or red pine, 
scrub or jack pine, white spruce, black spruce, Norway spruce, bal- 
sam fir, larch, tamarack, white cedar (arbor vitae), red cedar are 
all common in Wisconsin. 

b. Lesson on leaves and cones 

(1) Leaves: Needles, sheath at base, count number of nee- 
dles in different trees, why green, when do they fall, uses of needles, 
what makes the moaning of the wind in the evergreens? 

(2) Cones: position on tree, produce seeds, scales protect 
seeds, number of seeds to each scale. Shake seeds out and see how 
they fiy (wings). Pine cones take two years to mature, small im- 
mature cones may be found. Do evergreens bear flowers? (Cones 
correspond to flowers). Watch for new cones in the spring (male 
cones produce yellow pollen dust, female cones produce seed). 

c. For outline for tree descriptions see fall tree study. 

d. Connect evergreen study with Christmas. 

e. Uses of cone bearing trees: lumber, pitch, balsam, turpen- 
tine. Connect with geography. 

f. Teats in naming evergreens. Older pupils should know six- 
eight kinds the first year and should later become acquainted with 
all that grow in the locality. Test by using pictures, leaves, cones. 
g. References 

See f aU tree study 

Poulsson. In the child world, — for stories and poems 

Cooke. Nature myths and stories (T) 

iJovejoy. Nature in verse (T) 

Mumford. Set of tree pictures. A. W. Mumford, Chicago 

3. Animal study 

a. Animal pets. Dogs, cats, rabbits, a lamb, a calf. 

The purpose of this work is not to study structure or simply give 
information of any kind about these animals, but rather to develop 
a sympathetic interest in them, leading to desire for their acquaint- 
ance and companionship and appreciation of their usefulness. The 
children should be led to see how much the lives of these animals 
are like their own. This is the only true basis of sympathy. 

The observations and experiences of the children at home will 
serve as sufficient concrete basis for the school exercise. This ex- 
ercise should take the form of a conversation lesson with questions 
which lead pupils to tell about animals they have at home, why 
they like them and what they can do. A pet rabbit might be 



200 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

brought to school and kept in a comfortable place for a few days 
for children to feed and observe. 

The following questions illustrate the method: How many have 
some animal pet at home that you take care of? What does your 
dog eat? What kind of a dog is he? What tricks or other things 
can he do? Which can run faster, you or the dog? Does he ever 
get lonesome? Can he laugh or cry? In what way is the dog like 
us? In whaf ways does he help us? How many would like to own 
a dog? Who can tell some story about his dog? What reason for 
thinking that a dog has love for his master? Let the questions lead 
to conversation on the following topics: fidelity and love for master, 
unselfish devotion, courage, strength and endurance, keen scent, 
companion and playfellow, games and tricks, fetching sticks when 
thrown, drawing sleds and carts, sitting up, begging, speaking. 

After the conversation lesson, read the children some good stories 
about dogs, cats or other pets. See references: Eddy, Carter, 01- 
livant. 

This work furnishes the motive and content for some of the most 
valuable work in language and reading and might well be done in 
those classes. Try this plan of conversation exercise to help break 
up the common mechanical, dead way of reading. Some vital 
thought in the pupil's mind based on interesting experience and an 
eager desire for expressing this thought are essential to good ex- 
pression. This work on domestic animals is especially valuable 
for the younger children. 
b. Wild animals 

The love of thrilling adventure and of heroic deeds is a leading 
interest in children above the fourth grade and to some extent be- 
fore. Interest is also strong in controlling nature and in hunting 
wild game. These interests should direct the animal study. It 
should consist of conversation about animals the children have seen 
and of stories about the lives and heroic deeds of wild animals. 
There should be an effort to cultivate sympathy and kind treatment 
of all animals by man, and a desire to protect them from cruel 
treatment .or wanton destruction. Urge the need of obeying the 
game laws. Show how animals like the buffalo have become ex- 
tinct through wanton killing. Show also how Yellowstone and other 
national parks have become the refuge' of the wild animals through 
the protection of the U. S. Government. 

No special lessons are necessary. A good deal of the animal 
study may be done in the geography class, some in the reading and 
language. Stories may be read to the whole school. Pictures 
should be used extensively. Test and make use of all the experi- 
ences pupils have had with wild animals seen in the woods, at me- 
nageries, or elsewhere. Emphasize food and habits of the animals of 
the locality such as — squirrels, rabbits, chipmunks, ground hog, 
muskrat, moles. 



NATURE STUDY 



201 



c. Refer'ences 

Hodg-e. Chap. Ill (T) ; Coulter-Patterson p. 107 

Readers that contain animal stories 

Mumford. Colored pictures of animals. A. W. Mumford, Chicago 

Carter. Animal stories retold from St. Nicholas (T) 

Eddy. Friends and helpers (T) 

Homaday. Our vanishing wild life (T) 

Ingersoll. Wild neighbors (T) 

Kipling. .The jungle book (T) 

liong. Ways of wood folks, and others (T) 

OUivant. Bob, son of battle (T) 

Setotn. Wild animals I have knoAvn. Scribner. 

Wanier. A hunting of the deer 

See also Township Library List for additional titles (p. 44-52) 

4. Simple, physical and chemical experiments. Experiments may 
be worked and discussed once a week at the general exercise period. 
Odd times may be used for further experiments if interest is great 
enough. As a rule the teaclier should work the experiments, though 
pupils may help. Problems should be raised before and during the 
experiment. Do not tell pupils what occurs but get them to tell 
from their own observation. Most of these experiments should be 
tried by the teacher before they are attempted before the school. 

a. Materials. May be ordered through any druggist or the 
chemicals may be obtained of a druggist and the apparatus ordered 
directly from some scientific company such as Central Scientific 
Co., 412 Orleans Street, Chicago, or C. H. Stoelting Co., 3,0 47 Car- 
roll Ave., Chicago. 



30 
25 



80 
18 



06 



6 tumblers, thick v/alled... 

12 test tubes 6 in. x % in.. . . 

6 wide mouth bottles, flint, 

8 oz 

2 glass funnels 2V2 inch. . . 
4 feet glass tubing, soft 

glass, 3-16 outside diam,, 

in 2 foot lengths 

1 alcohol lamp, glass v/ith 

cap and wick, 4 oz 2 5 

1 pan, 2 quart 10 

1 triangular file, 5 inch 05 

2 rubber corks, 2 holes size 

to fit wide mouth bottles .20 

1 rubber cork, 1 hole. No. 

3 05 

12 inches rubber tubing, 

gum, Ys inch inside diam. .06 

2 candles, paraffide (at any 
grocery 03 

1 Steffi glass ci.tter 10 

6 gla.ss plates 4 in. square 

(cut from fragments of 

window glass). 
Pine splints, homemade. 
Broom wire or stove pipe 

wire. 
Wood alcohol for lamp, 8 

oz 10 

2 — 3 tin car:s. 



2 lamp chimneys 16 

SevenJ old bottles obtained 
fro.m home. 

Rack to hold test tubes, 
homemade. 

Litmus paper 1 sheet red, 1 
sheet blue 12 

Powdered sulphur, 1 oz 05 

Chlorate of potash, 2 oz 05 

Hydrochloric acid, commer- 
cial, 4 oz. bottle 10 

Sulphuric acid, com., 4 oz. 
bottle 10 

Charcoal, a few pieces from 
any coal dealer. 

Quick lime, a few small 
pieces from a lime dealer, 
kept in a tightly corked 
bottle. 

Soda. A couple of table- 
spoonfuls. 

Zinc, waste pieces from bat- 
teries or sheet zinc, or or- 
der granulated zinc, 4 oz. .05 

Marble, a fow small pieces, 
if ordered, 3 oz 05 

Manganese dioxide, pow- 
dered, 4 oz. . . 05 

Ammonia, 4 oz. bottle 05 



2 02 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

b. Outline of experiments 

(1) Air is a gas which occupies space 

(a) Exp. 1. Pass a small funnel through one hole of a 
two hole stopper, fitted tightly into a wide mouth bottle. Plug the 
other hole and then pour water into the funnel. Lead pupils to 
see why water does not go through into the bottle. Remove plug 
and explain result. Why does there have to be an air hole in draw- 
ing cider or any other liquid from the bung hole of a barrel? 

(b) Exp. 2. Fit an exit tube in the hole which was plug- 
ged. For bending and connecting glass tubing see some chemistry.' 
Pasaj this exit tube under the mouth of a bottle filled with water 
and inverted in a pan of water. Pour water through the funnel and 
collect the escaping gas as it passes out of the exit tube. Lead 
pupils to see that the bubbles passing into the second bottle are 
filled with air, and that water could not go into bottle No. 1 until 
this air had some way to escape. Bring out also that water is 
forced out of bottle No. 2 by the air which enters and rises to 
the top. 

Try to force an inverted tin can under water. Why does water 
not enter? Punch a small hole in the bottom (upper end when in- 
verted) by using a sharp file, and note the effect. 

(2) Ahf exerts pressure 

(a) Exp. 3. Place a piece of thin cardboard over a tum- 
bler completely filled with water. After making sure that the card 
fits tightly, quickly invert over a pan. Lead pupils to see that the 
pressure of the air holds the cardboard and prevents water com- 
ing out. 

(b) Exp. 4. Fill a tall bottle completely with water. Cov- 
er with finger or cardboard and invert quickly into a pan of wa- 
ter as in Exp. 1. What holds the water up? Get pupils to make 
or secure a pop gun. (Can be made out of elderberry.) Explain 
what forces the cork out, why it doesn't fly out at once when the 
ram rod starts and what makes the noise. 

(c) Exp. 5. Carefully warm a thin walled narrow necked 
bottle or a test tube over the alcohol flame and then quickly invert 
the bottle into a pan of water. Heat expands the air and drives 
part of it out of the bottle. What remains when it cools exerts less 
pressure than the air outside. The greater pressure outside forces 
the water in. Lead pupils to see that air is capable of expansion 
and contraction. 

Problem. Atmospheric pressure will sustain a column of mer- 
cury about 30 inches high. Mercury is 13.6 times as heavy as wa- 
ter. How high a column of water will air pressure sustain? Apply 
to the common lift pump. This pressure is sometimes stated as J15 
pounds on each square inph of surface. 



NATURE STUDY 203 

(3) Variations of pressure — Cause of wind 

(a) Exp. 6. Select a small wooden block that will fit in- 
to the inside of the base of a lamp chimney. By heating the lower 
en(^ of a short candle seal this on to the block so that the candle 
will stand upright on this base. Fix three other small blocks to 
set under the chimney for the' purpose of raising it about half an 
inch so as to admit air from below. Now light the candle and place 
the chimney over it with the small blocks in place as directed. 
After the candle has burned a few minutes, test the currents of air 
at the top of the chimney and' at the sides below. Test by using 
small bits of cotton or better, thistle or milkweed down obtained 
from the seed of these plants. Bring out how wind is due to varia- 
tions of pressure. The heat of the candle expands the air causing 
it to flow out above and thus resulting in low pressure below. Air 
then pushes into the heated area from high pressure regions out- 
side. Illustrate on the board by a drawing with arrows to show 
directions of currents. Study weather maps if available. 

(b) Exp. 7. Make a siphon out of glass tubing, rubber tub- 
ing or some kind of piping. It should be in the form of a U with 
one arm longer than the other. To start it, fill it completely with 
water and then while covering both ends tightly, lower the short 
arm into a dish of water. Then release both ends. Have an empty 
dish ready to catch the water from the long arm. The siphon may 
be filled by placing the short arm under water and then sucking 
water through by applying the mouth at the end of the long arm. 
Show how atmospheric pressure causes the siphon to flow. 

(4) Air has weight 

It takes 87.5 gallons of air to weigh a pound. Find the weight 
of a quart. See if pupils can think out a method of weighing air. 

(5) CJomposition of air 
(a) Oxygen 

Exp. 8. Prepare two or three bottles of pure oxygen as follows. 
Connect a delivery tube with a test tube as in Exp. 2 except use a 
one hole stopper to fit the test tube. Place about two thimblefuls 
of potassium chlorate in the test tube and add half as much clean 
fine sand or better manganese dioxide and mix the two thoroughly. 
Now connect the delivery tube. Next fill and invert three receiving 
bottles in a pan of water. Then begin heating the mixture in the 
test tube slowly at first, and afterward, applying more heat. After 
allowing the air in the apparatus to escape collect the oxygen given 
off in the receiving bottles as in Exp. 2. As soon as these bottles 
are filled cover with glass plates and set in upright position. Thrust 
a glowing (not blazing) pine splint into one bottle of oxygen. 
Fasten a piece of wire to a piece of charcoal, heat to glowing in the 
flame and then thrust into a bottle of gas. Sulphur may be burned 
in oxygen by fastening a piece of wire to an old thimble, putting a 



204 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

little powdered sulphur into the thimble, setting the sulphur on 
fire and then thrusting quickly into a bottle of oxygen. Get the 
pupils to see that pure oxygen is much like air but that substances 
burn much better in it. Oxygen constitutes over one-half the entire 
weight of the crust of the earth and is necessary for all burning and 
for the breathing of animals and plants. It constitutes about 1/5 of 
the volume of the air. 

(b) Nitrogen. Exp. 9. Make a torch by fastening a wad 
of cotton on a piece of broom wire a foot long. Now loop the wire 
at about the middle and bend nearly double. Next fill a tumbler 
half full of lime water. Have ready a wide mouth bottle. Dip the 
cotton torch into alcohol; lower the loop to the bottom of the tum- 
bler of lime water; light the torch, and quickly invert over the 
torch the empty wide mouth bottle, dipping the mouth of the bot- 
tle below the surface of the lime water. The burning forms carbon 
dioxide, but this is combined with the lime water as shown by the 
milky effect. As this combination takes place note the changes of 
level of the lime water in the bottle. Explain. Shaking the bot- 
tle about -in the tumbler helps the combination. After 5—10 min- 
utes draw out the wire and torch not allowing the mouth of the 
bottle to come above the surface of the lime water. Now care- 
fully lower a glass plate into the lime water so as to cover the moutn 
of the bottle. Hold the plate on firmly and quickly bring the bot- 
tle out of the lime water and place in an upright position. Keep- 
ing cover on, shake thoroughly to get all the carbon dioxide com- 
bined with the lime water. What remains in the bottle is nearly 
pure nitrogen. The gas can be transferred easily to a clean bottle 
by inverting into a pan of water; filling a second bottle and in- 
verting this into the same pan without admitting air and then care- 
fully bringing the mouth of the bottle containing the gas under the 
mouth of the one containing water, keeping the mouths of both 
bottles under water. As the bottle with the nitrogen is slowly 
brought to a horizontal position under the water, the gas will pass up 
into the clean bottle. Remove as before keeping covered in an 
upright position. Note color and appearance. Try burning a blaz- 
ing splint in the gas. Try burning charcoal or sulphur as in oxygen. 
Nitrogen neither burns nor supports burning. Of what use is it in 
the air? Care must be taken to see that air does not get in at any 
time during this experiment. With only a loose cover, air is sure 
to riiix in within a short time, so make the tests at once. Nitrogen 
constitutes about four-fifths of the volume of the air. 

(c) How to prepare lime water. Place about a spoonful of 
unslacked lime in a clean quart bottle and fill the bottle nearly full 
of water. Cork and shake thoroughly for several minutes, then set 
aside until the undissolved lime settles and the liquid above be- 
comes perfectly clear. Pour off the clear liquid into another clean 
bottle. Cork tightly and the lime water is ready to use. If kept 
tightly corked it keeps well for several weeks but becomes decom- 



NATURE STUDY 205 

posed if kept very long. If filter paper is available the lime water 
may be made for immediate use by filtering instead of allowing the 
lime to settle. 

(d) Carbon dioxide. This has been formed Jalready In 
Exp. 9. 

[1] Exp. 10. Expose a little lime water in a small, clean 
flat dish and let stand exposed to the air 10-15 minutes. Look for 
white scum on the surface showing presence of carbon dioxide in 
the air. Transfer to a test, tube and shake. Compare with effect 
in Exp. 9. 

Prepare pure carbon dioxide as follows: Fix a delivery tube into 
a small wide mouth bottle, through a one hole stopper. Place a 
few small pieces of marble or a teaspoonful of soda into the bottle 
and then add vinegar or better strong hydrochloric acid diluted 
with about twice its own volume of water. Connect the delivery 
tube and after all air is out of the apparatus collect several bottles 
of the gas as in Exps. 2 and 8. The gas is heavier than air and 
may be poured from one bottle to another like a liquid, pour some 
into a bottle containing an inch of lime water. Shake thoroughly. 
The milky effect as already seen is a test for the gas carbon diox- 
ide. Lower a burning match or splint into another jar of the gas 
and note effect. Sum up the properties of the gas. If mixed with 
air carbon dioxide furnishes a food material to plants. When pure 
it suffocates either animals or plants. Discuss the danger from this 
gas in mines, wells and caves. Have children find out about the 
miner's safety lamp. How could carbon dioxide be detected in a 
well or cave? 

[2] Exp. 11. Try dissolving away the shell of an egg by 
placing the egg in vinegar or dilute hydrochloric acid. The egg be- 
comes soft which is an interesting mystery to the children. They 
might try this at home. What are the bubbles which form about 
the egg shell? The shell is the same substance as marble. 

(6) The gas hydrogen. Exp. 12. To prepare hydrogen use 
a generator as in Exp. 10. Use pieces of zinc instead of marble or 
soda. Add dilute hydrochloric acid (1 part strong acid to 4 parts 
water). Be sure to let all air escape, then collect three bottles of 
the gas as in Exps. 2, 10. Be careful not to spill any strong acid 
on floor, hands, or clothing. Sulphuric acid such as that used at 
creameries for testing milk may be used instead of hydrochloric 
but special care must be taken in mixing this acid with water. Pour 
the strong acid very slowly into the water not the reverse. Wait 
till the mixture cools before using. Leave the bottles of gas in the 
water till ready to make tests or if you take them out place them 
in an inverted position since hydrogen is so much lighter than air 
that it escapes quickly if the bottles are left upright even though 
covered. 



206 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

Now try lighting the mouth of one bottle of the gas by applying 
a lighted candle or taper, holding the bottle still inverted at arms 
length. Note the puff or slight explosion and look out for a nearly 
colorless flame which is due to the gas burning in air. Avoid let- 
ting air mixi with the gas before lighting since a violent explosion 
may occur when the gases are mixed. 

Thrust a lighted splint quickly into a bottle of the gas. Does 
hydrogen support burning of the splint? Hold a piece of cold, dry 
glass over a hydrogen flame after lighting one of the bottles. Look 
for drops of water collecting on the glass. The water is produced 
by the hydrogen uniting with the oxygen of the air, in burning. 
Sum up the properties of the gas. Hydrogen is an important con- 
stituent of illuminating gas and is present in a combined state in 
most combustible oils such as kerosene, gasoline, etc. 

(7) Evaporation aiid condensation 

(a) Exp. 13. Fill a tumbler nearly full of water, mark the 
position of th^ water surface and then let stand in a warm place 
for a day or two. Note position of surface again. Get pupils to ex- 
plain the loss of water. How is maple sugar made? Is there any 
way to moisten the air in your school? How? 

(b) Exp. 14. Hold a cold, dry glass plate over a dish of 
water heating on a stove, or over a tea kettle containing hot water. 
What collects on the glass? Why? 

(c) Exp. 15. Expose a dish of ice water in a warm damp 
room and note drops of water. Explain. The room may be too 
dry. Ask for other examples: drops of water on a pump spout or 
on a pitcher of cold water in summer, water on glasses in the kitchen 
on wash day, formation of frost. 

(d) "xp. 16. Frost may be made by packing a tin can 
(coffee or tomato) in a mixture of ice and salt as in an ice cream 
freezer. Look for frost on inside of can. Note crystals. Get pu- 
pils to explain. Make application to weather phenomena. 

(8) Solution and crystallization. Exp. 17. Make a strong 
solution of salt and another of sugar in tumblers. Let them both 
evaporate nearly to dryness in a warm place. Study the form of 
the crytals. Formation of large crystals is facilitated by hanging 
a string in the solution. Have pupils bring from home some of the 
deposit from a tea kettle. Discuss its formation. Why do white 
spots form inside of a water picther? How can they be removed? 
(Vinegar or lemon juice.) Explain. 

(9) Heating and burning 

(a) Exp. 18. Lower a burning candle into a wide mouth bot- 
tle, cover with a glass plate and note effect on flame. Why does it go 
out? Do the same leaving bottle open. What difference? Show that 
the candle will burn longer in a large than in a small bottle. Why 
will water or a blanket put out fire? Why does a fire burn more 
fiercely on a windy day? 



NATURE STUDY 207 

(b) Exp. 19. After burning a candle as in the first part of Exp. 
18, quickly take out the candle and pour in lime water. Recover and 
shake. What was formed by the candle burning in air? 

(c) Exp. 20. Place an inch of lime water in a tumbler and 
blow several breaths into it by means of a pipe stem, a straw or a 
glass tube. Note change in lime water. Where did the carbon 
dioxide come from? (Oxidation of substances in the body containing 
carbon). Why don't our bodies burn up? 

(d) Exp. 21. Hold a cool, dry glass plate a little above the 
flame of the alcohol lamp for a moment or two. Do not get it into 
the flame and avoid getting it hot enough to break. What collects on 
the glass? Water is another product of the burning of most sub- 
stances. 

(e) Exp. 22. Partially burn pieces of match, scraps of paper, 
small corks, etc., and note the black substance formed. This is car- 
bon or charcoal. Other forms are coal, coke, peat and diamond. How 
do sugar and starch change when they get on a hot stove? Explain. 
Most combustible substances contain carbon combined with oxygen 
and hydrogen. Incomplete burning forms the carbon. Complete 
burning changes this to carbon dioxide. Have certain pupils look up 
and report on these topics: manufacture of charcoal, how coal is 
formed in the earth. 

Smoke a piece of glass or porcelain in a candle flame. Explain 
where the carbon comes from and why it forms (cool surface lowers 
the temperature so that burning is incomplete). Show that the 
smoke may be burned off in the alcohol flame. Heat very slowly at 
first to avoid breaking. 

(f) Exp. 23. Arrange an iron rod about 8 inches long so that a 
match head rests on one end and the other end is in the heat of the 
alcohol lamp. Heat till the match takes fire. How does the heat get 
from one end of the rod to the other? (Conduction). 

(g) Exp. 24. Repeat Exp. 6 and show how heat is carried to the 
layers of air above the candle. Fill each of two test tubes half full 
of water. Heat both over the alcohol lamp, applying the heat in one 
case to the bottom and in the other to the top of the water (can be 
done by tipping the test tube). Explain how currents move in water. 
Study circulation of air currents in the heating and ventilating sys- 
tem of the school building. How does heat get to the other parts of 
the room from a hot stove? (Mostly radiation). How does the 
jacket usually found in country schools affect the transfer of heat. 

(h) Exp. 25. Secure a bolt on which the nut fits snug but 
screws easily. Take off the nut and heat the screw end of the bolt 
hot in the alcohol flame. Then try screwing on the nut while the 
screw end is still hot. Use a holder to avoid burning fingers. Dis- 
cuss the following: the setting of wagon tires, how the rails of a rail- 
road track are layed in summer, why cracks are left in the laying of 
cement walks and street pavements, why telephone wires sag more in 
summer than in winter, why cracks occur in the road in very cold 
weather. 
Study the principle of the thermometer. 



2 08 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

(10) Acids, bases, and salts. 

Exp. 26. Test the following substances with both red and blue 
litmus paper: hydrochloric acid, soda, vinegar, lemon juice, table 
salt, ammonia, sulphuric acid, lime water, chlorate of potash. A little 
of each of these substances should be added to about an inch of water 
in a test tube and then small strips of litmus paper should be dipped 
into each solution. Acids change litmus red, alkaline substances blue 
and neutral substances have no effect or produce an intermediate 
color. To a very weak solution of vinegar which shows an acid test 
add lime water till a neutral color is obtained. - Acids and bases 
neutralize each other and form neutral substances called salts. Test 
soil by packing a damp sample about strips of red and blue litmus 
paper and leaving for 15-20 minutes. Many soils are acid. What 
should the farmer add to such soils? 

(11) Electricity and magnetism, light. A few simple experi- 
ments may be made most interesting and practical if there is time. 
See Township Library List, p. 38. 

(12) References 

Comstock, pp. 825, 850, 877, 915 (T) 
Coulter-Patterson, p. 2 35, 2 64 
Holden. Real things in nature (T) 

Textbooks of physics and chemistry; any of the many texts in gen- 
eral science 

5. Insect study. No special exercises. Look out for cocoons 
which may be kept to observe the coming out of butterfly or moth 
in the spring. Several of the large cocoons are found on the branches 
of trees and shrubs. 

6. Preparation of bulbs. These may be prepared in February or 
early March for spring blooming. Bulbs of narcissus, daffodil, jon- 
quil and hyacinth can usually be obtained at stores, or certainly at 
any greenhouse. They can be secured also by sending directly to 
some seed house. Put the bulbs in good earth in plant pots or win- 
dow boxes. Set the bulbs several inches below the surface. Hya- 
cinths should be kept in fhe dark till buds are well started. Tulip 
bulbs should be put in the ground outside before the ground freezes 
in the fall. 

Spring Topics — March, April, May. 

1. Birds. As much time as possible out-of-doors to observe the 
birds as they return loiith their spring migration. Encourage pupils 
to ivatch for them and report for the bird calendar. Two or more 
special field trips. Four or more special exercises. At the opening 
exercises get reports and make additions to the bird calendar. 

a. Materials 

(1) Pictures and books for identification 

A.. W. Mumford, publisher, Chicago. Send for list — 1-3 cts. depend- 
ing on number. In colors 



NATURE STUDY 



209 



Perry Picture Co., Maiden, Mass., 2 cts. eacli for 13 or more. In 
colors »ii i 

Chester A. Reed. Bird guides. See township library list. p. 54, 5 5 

National geographical magazine. May, 1914, Au-g., 1915, Wash- 
ington, D, C. 

Arbor and bird day manuals since 19 06. See fall bird references. 
A large collection of fine colored plates. 

National Audubon Society, 1974 Broadway, New York. 

(2) Old boxes for making bird houses. Tools at homes of pupils 
or any manual training equipment available at school. 

b. Lesson outline 

(1) Acquaintance, Place the following diagram on the 
board. Drill on the parts. To identify birds it is necessary to locate 
colors accurately and familiarity with the names of these parts will 
help greatly. Have pupils point out on the diagram the position of 
colors on birds observed and reported. 

Diagram to Show External Parts of a Bird. 




ExjDlanation. 

1. Bill, 2. Forehead, 3. Lore, 4. Chin, 5. Crown, 6. Auriculars, 
7. Nape', 8. Hind Neck, 9. Throat, 10. Back, 11. Scapulars or Shoul- 
ders, 12. Lesser Wing Coverts, 13. Middle Wing. Coverts, 14. Greater 
Wing Coverts, 15. Tertiaries, 16. Secondaries, 17. Primaries, 18. 
Breast, 19. Belly, 20. Planks or Sides, 21. Under Tail Coverts, 22. 
Rump, 23. Upper Tail Coverts, 24. Tail, 25. Pleel, 26. Toes. 



(2) Bird calendar. Have daily reports after the birds be- 
gin to appear. Keep a record of names of birds, earliest dates when 
seen and name of pupil first reporting. Stimulate rivalry in report- 
ing as many as possible. Accuracy in reporting may be stimulated 
by forfeiting one whenever a wrong report is made). Keep the 
calendar on the corner of the blackboard or on a special chart as fol- 
lows : 



210 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 
BIRD CALENDAR FOR 1916, MADISON. 



Name of bird 


Dates when seen 


Namei of pupil reporting 


Robin 


3/13 


Geo. Miller 



Have coloring reported as fully as possible using diagram of ex- 
ternal parts. 

(3) Attracting birds 

(a) Bird houses. Start a contest in making bird houses. 
This should be begun early enough so that an exhibit may be held 
before time to put the bird houses up. Wrens, blue birds, white- 
bellied swallows, martins and occasionally other birds can be at- 
tracted to nest in a box. A wren house should be small and should 
have a hole the size of a quarter to keep sparrows out. Martin houses 
should have compartments for a number of pairs of birds. Houses 
other than the wren house should not be put up till the sparrows have 
built elsewhere or if houses are already up, stop up the holes at least 
till the desired birds come to take possession. 

Houses should be put up on poles ten or more feet high or they may 
be suspended in trees. Protection from cats is important. 

For pictures and plans of bird houses, — see Hodge p. 332; Arbor 
and Bird Day Annual 1911; Farmers' Bulletin on Bird Houses No. 609; 
State Conservation Commission, Madison, Chart on Bird Houses. 
Send for illustrated catalog of the Dodson Bird houses. Jos. H. Dod- 
son, Kankakee, 111.; See Manual training projects in this manual. 

(b) Material for nests. Scatter cotton, string, small bits 
of cloth, etc., about the yard or on the branches of trees and watch 
for the birds coming to take them for nests. Yellow warblers and 
orioles and often others will take such material eagerly at the time 
they are building their nests. 

(c) Drinking and bathing places. Put up some flat dish 
of galvanized iron or granite in some place protected from cats. 
Hodge wood, p. 330. 

(d> Food. Continue observations and reports. Make 
further records on the food chart. See fall bird study. Put out a 
bird lunch counter. See Dodson's catalog. Also Farmers' bulletin 
No. 609. 

(4) Songs and calls. 'Continue work suggested in the fall. 

(5) Bird laws. Review the fall work. 

c. Tests in knowing birds- See which one can get the largest 
number right on a field trip. Keep a list by number as under fall 
tree study. Give similar tests using pictures. Older pupils should 
know fifty or more birds the first year and at least a hundred before 
leaving school. 

d. References. See fall bird study. 



NATURE STUDY 2ll 

2. Insects. One or two lessons when hutterflies or moths come 
out. A lesson on any other available material such as June hug heetle 
or codling moth. 

Close watch will have to be kept of cocoons and chrysalids kept 
over winter to see when they begin to come out. The large moths 
usually come out in May, butterflies may come out a little earlier. 
Let pupils observe the coming out if possible and then have a con- 
versation lesson bringing out the following: name, movements, how 
the moth sees, how he feeds, how he eats (some large moths have no 
mouth parts, other moths and all butterflies have a coiled sucking 
tube), covering of the wings, etc. 

Ask such questions as the following: How did the moth get out of 
the cocoon? Where did he come out? Of what use was the cocoon? 
What is the cocoon made of? (silk). Cut the cocoon open and note 
the shell of the chrysalis which the moth sheds before coming out. 
Find also the last molt of the caterpillar. Round up the complete 
life history: egg, caterpillar, cocoon, adult. Lead pupils to see what 
wonderful lives these insects lead. 

After the study let the pupils see the specimens fly away through 
an open window or from out-of-doors. If some of the older pupils 
want to mount specimens, they may be killed and mounted according 
to directions in Hodge Chap. Ill, or in Farmers' bulletin No. 607, 
"Preserving Insect Material." Ask children to observe butterflies 
sucking nectar from flowers and to find out how the nectar is obtained. 

References. See under fall insect study. 

3. Garden work. Special lessons on this topic should te given in 
connection with the agriculture. Nature study time may &e used if 
needed in planning gardens. Lesson on earth worm should he given 
to all the pupils, 

a. General suggestions. Younger as well as older pupils should 
be urged to have gardens. The plots for the younger ones should be 
small and they should plan to raise a smaller number of products. 
Flowers interest younger children especially. Pupils having field 
projects should not as a rule try the garden in addition. For full 
directions about garden work see under "Agriculture." While no for- 
mal lessons need be given to the younger children they should receive 
some simple instructions on seeds, soil, etc., in connection with their 
gardens. All the pupils as far as possible should have a part in the 
fall exhibit. 

b. Conversation lesson on earthworms. Ask pupils to observe 
them at home in connection with work in their gardens. Observe 
any found in connection with soil preparation or planting at school. 

Raise questions for pupils to find out, e. g. Find out what kind of 
feet the earthworm has and how they are used? How does an earth- 
worm get into the ground? Look for earthworms coming out of their 
burrows on a warm damp night on the lawn or in 'the garden. They 
may be seen by use of a lantern. What do they come up for? (To 
get vegetable food mainly). Look for their castings left on the sur- 
face. Do angleworms rain down? Why are they so abundant after 



212 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

a rain? (Burrows fill with water). Can these worms see? Why? 
Note the body segments. Look for egg and sperm openings on seg- 
ments 14 and 15. Look for egg capsules when digging in the soil, 
light brown sacs about the size of a radish seed. What are these 
sacs for? (Contain eggs which develop young worms.) 

Sum up how they live and their benefits? Movements, feet, (four 
rows of bristle feet) breathing, sight, burrows, food, habit of com- 
ing up at night, castings, need of air, admitting air to soil, leaving 
wastes which supply food to plants, bring up new soil from below, 
where they spend the winter, egg capsules. 

c. References 

Coulter-Patterson, p. 203; Comstock, p. 596-675; Hodge, Chap. 

VIII. 
Farmers' Bulletins, 154, 195, 218, 220, 255, 521 
Township library list, p. 66-76 

4. Arbor Day and landscape work. The young pupils sliould 
have a part in the planning and planting, l)ut do not need any special 
lessons. Give the lessons in the agriculture. See Course of Study, 
p. 104. 

a. Importance of a complete plan. Arbor day planting though 
much has been done for years, has left extremely small permanent 
results on rural school grounds, largely because there has been no 
definite or complete plan. Planting has therefore been haphazard 
and neglected. Frequent change of teachers has increased the diffi- 
culty of hit and miss planting. 

Every teacher in a rural school should in good time before Arbor 
Day (January is none too soon) consult with some member of the 
school board who is most interested, about securing a complete plan 
of planting for the grounds. This plan may be worked out by the 
teacher and the older pupils (see rules for planting), but it will be 
much better to secure some help. For such help write to the State 
Department of Education or to the Secretary of the State Horticul- 
tural Society, both of Madison, Wisconsin. In writing send a plan 
of the school grounds drawn to a scale showing form of grounds and 
position of buildings, walks, drives, trees and shrubs already growing. 
When a complete plan has been secured showing kinds of shrubs and 
trees and where they should be planted, it should be kept by the 
school hoard and each year a little may be done in working out this 
plan. However little is done, that little will work toward the final 
completion of a good piece of work. Every school ground may thus 
be made beautiful and attractive by a very little work each year. If 
a plan is kept at school a copy should be in the hands of the board. 
Arbor and Bird Day Annual, 1915, p. 40. Suggestions for Improve- 
ment of School Grounds. 

b. Size of grounds. In securing grounds for new schools, pro- 
vision should be made for a play ground, and for an attractive yard 
about the building. Nothing less than an acre should be planned. 
Three to five acres are desirable. Wherever possible, provision should 



NATURE STUDY 213 

be made for a piece of ground which may be used as an agricultural 
plot. 

c. Care through the summer. The care of trees and shrubs 
after planting is quite as important as proper planting in the first 
place. Care is needed especially during the hot, dry summer months 
to see that trees do not dry out and die. Trees and shrubs are even 
more apt to die the second than the first summer. Teachers should 
make definite arrangements for some one especially interested to give 
this summer care. A little thought and small expense may finally 
result in beautiful school grounds. 

d. Kinds of trees and shrubs. Make use as far as possible of 
native trees and shrubs and avoid those not adapted to the region. 
This saves expense and they grow better. Slower growing trees 
such as maple, elm, bass wood, ash, birch, horse chestnut, walnut, and 
evergreens are more desirable than such rapid growing trees as box 
elder, willow and poplar. A few of these latter may be planted but 
with the idea of cutting them out when better trees are grown. Aim 
to have a good variety. Do not plant many of the same kind except 
in bunches. Give special thought to planting trees and shrubs which 
will furnish food for birds, e. g. mulberry, wild cherry, elderberry, 
June berry, dogwood, viburnum, (high bush cranberry especially 
good), mountain ash, hawthorn, spice bush, buckthorn. 

e. Rules for planting. 1. Plant about the borders of the lawn 
space leaving spacious grass plats inside. 2. Mass or bunch the 
planting and avoid straight lines for either trees or shrubs. 3. Leave 
gaps for vistas between the bunches of shrubbery or trees. 4. Mass 
shrubbery in the angles and about the corners of the building, but do 
not completely cover the view of the building. 5. Mass shrubbery 
along in front of trees. 6. Plant flowers along the front border of 
shrubbery. 7. Cover unsightly places by vines or high shrubbery. 8. 
Be sure that provision is made for the care of trees and shrubs during 
vacation. 9. In planting preserve and spread the small roots and 
cover with mellow soil. 

f. References. 

Course ^ f study in Elementary Agriculture for the Wisconsin Rur- 
al Schools, p. 104. 

Arbor and Bird Day manual, 1909, p. 41; 1903; 1908; 1915. p. 40. 

School beautiful, Issued by State Dept. of Education, 19 07, p. 75. 

Farmers' bulletins No. 134. Tree planting- on rural school grounds; 
No. 185 Beautifying home grounds, 

Wisconsin Exp, Sta. bulletins No. 105. Improvement of home 
grounds; No. 108 Trees and shrubs for shade and ornament. 

5. Tree study. Should he taken up as huds begin to hurst and 
blossoms appear, again after leaves are fully out and fruits have 
formed. Several excursions and a number of tests in naming and 
describing trees. Drawing exercises for sketching buds, blossoms, 
leaves and fruits. 

a. For suggestions see outlines for fall tree study period 

b. Extend acquaintance as much as possible period 



214 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

c. Give special lessons on buds, blossoms, leaves, and fruits. 

(1) Buds. (When they have started to swell or if brought 
in and put in water they may be studied earlier.) Have specimens 
of poplar, horse chestnut or lilac for observation. Others will do in- 
stead. When did the buds start to grow? What is inside? Is the 
bud alive? How did nature protect the young bud through the 
winter? (Scales and sometimes a gluey cement.) What will they 
develop into as they grow? (Shoots and blossoms.) How arranged 
on the stem? (Alternate, opposite.) How does this arrangement 
compare with the arrangement of branches and why? Which come 
out first, flower buds or shoot buds, what advantage? Where did 
last year's buds start on the branch you have? (See ring of scars 
where scales fell off.) 

(2) Blossoms. Many people never notice that trees bloom 
and have beautiful blossoms. Such blossoms as the elm, maple, ash, 
box elder, poplar, willow, birch, hazel nut, black alder, and oak 
produce only the essential male and female parts (stamens and pistils) 
having no leaf like or colored parts (sepals and petals) such as are 
common in other flowers. Show how the male flowers (staminate) 
produce pollen and the female (pistillate) produce the young seed. 

Explain about importance of pollination and fertilization. In the 
list just mentioned pollination is brought about by the wind. The 
flowers are often in compact spike like clusters called catkins, which 
may be either male or female. Collect and study flowers of trees. 
Emphasize beauty and how they produce the seed. 

(3) Fruits and seeds. Observe fully developed fruits and 
seeds of those that develop in spring, and study means of distribu- 
tion and development of young trees from seed. 

(4) Leaves. After leaves come out study their work 
(breathing organs, starch factories). Explain how this work is car- 
ried on (breathing pores, starch made out of carbondioxide and water 
in the leaf cells). Show how the food is transferred to other parts 
of the plant along the veins and stem. Sketch buds, blossoms, leaves 
and seeds as far as there is time. 

d. Tests in naming trees. Use trees out-of-doors, collected blos- 
soms, seeds and leaves, pictures. See plan for fall study. Older 
pupils should add -fifteen or twenty kinds to the fall list and should 
come to know most of the trees of the region. 

e. Study of kinds of woods. An excellent topic for geography. 

f. References. 

See under fall tree study 

See any botany on pollination and fertilization 

Township library list, p. 42 

6. Flower study. Several field trips to gather and identify flowers. 
Ohservations and reports on the spring flowers. One or two special 



NATURE STUDY 215 

lessons on the floiver and its work. Look over plan for fall flower 
study. 

a. Acquaintance. 

(1) List. Children should learn to know as many as possi- 
ble of the following: buttercup, hepatica, spring beauty, blood root, 
Dutchman's breeches, marsh marygold, wood anemone, violet (white, 
yellow, common blue, bird's foot), pasque flower, trailing arbutus, 
Jack-in-the-pulpit, skunk's cabbage, (very early), dog-tooth-violet, 
trillium, Solomon's seal, false Solomon's seal, iris, wild ginger, meadow 
rue. May apple, shooting star, phlox, painted cup, lady's slipper, bell- 
wort, spring cress, blue bell, valerian. 

(2) Flower calendar. Keep names and dates as flowers are 
reported or brought in. 

b. Tests. Make sure that pupils learn to .know at least 
twenty spring flowers the first year. Increase the number each year. 

c. Lesson on the work of flowers. 

(1) Beauty. Bring out how much pleasure they give us and 
caution against wasteful picking and digging up. Keep bouquets in 
the schoolroom and develop appreciation. 

(2) Production of the seed. Young seeds produced in the pis- 
til, pollen produced ih the stamens. Pollination and fertilization must 
take place before the young seeds can develop. Insects are necessary 
for the pollination of most of our showy flowers. Wind is the agent 
for pollination for many trees and some other plants. How does the 
flower attract insects? (Colored leaf like parts (petals), odor, nectar.) 
Show how the insect is directed to the nectar (colored lines, colored 
centre). Emphasize how wonderfully the insects help the flowers and 
how the flowers help the insects. Use easy poems and stories. Especi- 
ally read Longfellow — "The Flowers." 

d. References 

Pictures in Colors. A. W. Mumford, publisher; National Geog-ra- 
phical Magazine, May, 1915; Perry Picture Co., Maiden, Mass. 

Couljer-Patterson, p. 93, 191; Comstock, p. 496-530; (T) Hodge (T) 
Chap. VI. 

Dana. How to know the wild flowers (T) 

Mathews. Field book of American wild flowers (T) 

Cooke. Nature myths (T) 

Lovejoy. Poetry of the seasons (T) ; Nature in verse (T) 

Township library list, p. 42-44 

7.^ Frogs and toads. Trip to some pond to study egg laying liahits 
and collect eggs. Daily observations in the schoolroom of developing 
eggs and tadpoles. Otservatio^is made hy pupils in their gardens or 
about home. 

a. Materials. Dishes for collecting and containing eggs and tad- 
poles. Mason jars or small pails are good for collecting. A tadpole 
aquarium may be flxed as follows: Secure an aquarium jar or a gran- 
ite pan will do. Bring from the pond where eggs are found, some 
jyf the water, mud, slimy stones and water plants. Fix these in the 



216 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

pan as nearly as possible as they were found in the pond. Plants 
which grew in the mud should be reset in the mud. After the water 
has cleared the aquarium is ready for use. Once a week more water, 
mud and several slimy stones should be added from the pond to re- 
plenish water and the food supply which consists of minute plants and 
perhaps animal material found in the slime and mud. 

Frog's eggs are layed in globular masses of jelly. Toads lay their 
eggs in jelly-like strings. Avoid collecting a large amount of material. 
Tadpoles will be much more likely to die if you have a great number. 
After the eggs hatch do not keep over a dozen tadpoles for further 
study. Get the children to put all the rest carefully back in the pond. 
If no eggs are found boys can nearly always find tadpoles. 

After egg laying is over and toads have left the ponds, they may be 
collected by pupils who have gardens and made comfortable in the 
gardens. Small holes four or five inches deep about the edge of the 
garden and partly covered by boards make good retreats for the toads 
in the day time. These holes should be kept damp. 

Egg laying occurs between late March and early May depending on 
season and locality. 

b. Lesson outline 

(1) Review the fall work on toad study. Where did they 
spend the winter? Why do they go to the ponds in spring? How do 
frogs and toads croak? (Forcing air out of special sacs.) One of 
the pleasing sounds of spring associated with the breeding season. 
(2) Life history 

(a) Eggs where found, how attached, date, use of jelly (pro- 
tection), number, size, color, why so many are layed, time of incuba- 
tion, what the mother does for the young. 

(b) Tadpoles, also called polliwogs: how they get out of the 
jelly, movement, breathing, fringe like gills where locate<|, food, how 
secured, growth, appearance of legs, disappearance of tail. When tail 
has entirely disappeared and the adult stage is reached a thin board 
or other float should be provided so they can crawl out of the water. 
They now breath air by means of lungs as we do. The little frogs or 
toads should be set free in some garden or other safe place. 

(c) The adult: review habits and sum up entire life history. 
(3) Usefulness, protection, enemies. A few adult toada may 

be kept in a box and fed for a short time as in the fall. Be very care- 
ful to release them before school closes. See fall outline. 

c. References 

Hodge, Chap. XVI and XVII (T) ; Comstock p. 181-197. (T). 
Smith. The home aquarium and how to care for it (T). Wood. 
Animals, their relation and use to man (T). Township library list, 
p. 44-52, See fall references under "Toads" 



AGRICULTURE 21' 



AGRICULTURE 



I. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 

1. Place on the program. As previously indicated three periods 
a week during spring and fall and one period a week during the 
winter should be devoted to the agriculture. The lessons should 
be given especially to the seventh and eighth grades though other 
pupils may sometimes take part in the practical work and may also 
be interested in some class discussions. 

2. Viewpoint. The most important aim of the work should bo 
to develop in the boys and girls an intelligent interest in the life 
and problems of the farm. Much of the same interest should be 
aroused in the community. The pupils should further gain some 
skill in applying the best knowledge to actual farm practice in such 
a way as to obtain a worth while result. This to them valuable re- 
sult, will furnish the most powerful motive for the work. This 
means not only that classes should be organized for systematic in- 
struction, but also that much work should be connected directly 
with the seasonal activities of the farms and homes of the com- 
munity. Many of the class periods should therefore be utilized 
for such work as selecting seed corn in the field, studying a fine 
herd of cattle, or collecting weed specimens rather than for the 
reciting of a lesson assigned in a textbook. Other periods should bo 
used for observing and studying material collected, for making 
some test or for carrying out some experiment. 

3. Textbook. A good textbook in elementary agriculture should 
be in the hands of every pupil for the assignment of definite les- 
sons. These assignments should be used to supply needed infor- 
mation and to help round up each topic. 

4. Practical projects. As many pupils as "possible should be led 
to carryi out practical projects at home each year. In the winter 
these may be in the line of cow testing, poultry work or some other 
animal project. During the crop growing season they should con- 
sist in raising products such as corn, potatoes or garden crops on 
small pieces of land. Any "Boy's and Girl's Club Work" organized 
by the county superintendent should be made a part of this work 



218 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

and teachers should confer early with the county superintendent re-^ 
garding his plans along this line. Suitable contests should be ar- 
ranged. 

5. Exhibit. An annual exhibit of products raised by the pupils 
should be planned and made one of the most important events of 
the year. See "Garden Work". 

6. Farm literature. The work should acquaint the pupils and to 
a large extent also the community with the best farm literature 
such as papers, bulletins, the agricultural yearbook, etc., and also 
develop an intelligent understanding of such literature. Every 
country school ought to receive regularly two or more good agricul- 
tural papers. See list at the end of these outlines. 

7. Community help. For the purpose of getting the best com- 
munity help and at the .same time arousing the best community in- 
terest, it is recommended that each teacher select after a careful 
survey of the community two or three farmers who are best fitted 
to give advice and help in organizing the practical side of the work. 
These men should be consulted and advised with often. These and 
any others who have been especially successful along any line of 
farming should be invited to help by giving special demonstrations 
at their homes or by talks at school. 

8. Plans of topics. The following plan of topics indicates what 
may be regarded as a minimum list and suggests also a supple- 
mentary list which may be used if found advisable. The minimum 
list is intended to furnish two years work for seventh and eighth 
grades. In most country schools both grades should be combined 
into one class. The county superintendent should indicate to his 
teachers each year what topics should be treated in each county. 
Since conditions as to successful crops differ so widely in different 
parts of the state it is not thought advisable to attempt to make 
this division for the whole state. It should be the aim to round up 
all the topics in the two years so far as local farm practice will 
allow. 



II. COURSE OF STUDY 





Minimum 


List 




1. Fall 




6. 


Weeds 


a. Corn 






( 1 ) Acquaintance 


(1) 


Stelection and cur- 




(2) Making of col- 




ing 




lection 


(2) 


Making a corn 




(3) Study of plants 




tree 




(4) Study of seeds 


(3) 


Varieties 




(5) Methods of exter- 


(4) 


Judging- and ex- 




mination 




hibiting 




(6) Weed laws 



AGRICULTURE 



21! 



c. Potatoes 

(1) Slarjdard v.arieties 

(2) Selection and care 

of seed 

(3) Judg-ing- and ex- 

hibiting 

(4) Storing- and mar- 

keting- 

(5) Potato diseases 

d. Legumes 

(1) Clover 

(2) Alfalfa 

(3) Sweet clover 

(4) Characteristics 
(5) Root tubercles 

e. Exhibits 

(1) Preparation o f 

products 

(2) Contests and 

prizes 

(3) Arranging pro- 

gram 
/. Library lessons. Teach 

the lessons assigned to 
the Agriculture Class 
oji page 19, Lessons 
on the Use of the 
School Library. 



2. V\lntcr 

a. Poultry 

(l)Breeds and char- 
acteristics 

(2) Judging 

(3) Poultry house 

construction 

(4) Egg laying 

(5) Feeding and sani- 

tation 
1). Dairying 

(1) Breeds and char- 

acteristics 

(2) Judging 

(3) Milk testing 

(4) Care of milk and 

cream 



(5) Feeds and feed- 

ing 

(6) Balanced rations 

3. Spring- 

a. Corn 

(1) Seed testing 

(2) Preparation of 

soil 
(3)Planting 
(4) Cultivation 
(5) Place in rotation 
h. Potatoes 

(1) Cutting 

(2) Preparation of 

soil 

(3) Treatment o f 

scab 

( 4 ) Planting 

(5) Cultivation 

c. Birds 

(1) Acquaintance 

(2) Economic value 

(3) Aesthetic value 

(4) Protectirn 

(5) Ciassificijtion oc- 

3ording to food 
nabils 

d. Garden Work 

(1) Planning 

(2) Planting 

(3) Sunv acr care 

e. Alfalfa 

(1) Limiiig 

(2) Inoculation 

(3) Enriching soil 

(4) Tine lo plant 

(5) Care 
/. Soil Study 

(1) Kinds 

(2) CM-igin '^nd com- 

position 

(3) Conservation of 

n-oisture 
• (4) Tillage and drain- 
age 

(5) Fertilizers 

(6) Crop rotation 



Supplementary List 



1. Fall 

a. Insects 

(1) Acquaintance 

(2) Life history 

(o) Economic import- 
ance 

(4) Control 

(5) Beneficial insects 



d. Plant Diseases 

(1) Rust and smut 

(2) Pear blight 

(3) Potato blight 
c. Fruit Growing 

(1) Varieties 

( 2 ) Harvesting and 

marketing 



220 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



(3) Spraying 

pruning- 

(4) Propagating 



and 



d. Silo 



(1) Filling 

(2) Value for winter 

feeding 



2. Winter 

a. Horses and Hogs 

(1) Breeds and char- 

acteristics 

(2) Judging 
(S) Feeding 

(4) Value of pure 
bred sire 
ft. Beef Cattle 

(1) Breeds and char- 

acteristics 

(2) Judging 



(3) Feeding and rc^- 

tions 

(4) Marketing 

3. Spring 

a. Fruit Growing 

(1) Pruning 

(2) Spraying 

(3) Planting 
J). Silo 

(1) Survey 

(2) Silage crops 

(3) Construction 

(4) Advantages 
c. Roads 

(1) Importance 

(2) Road building in 

Wisconsin 

(3) Construction in 

locality 

(4) The road drag 

(5) Relation to 

schools 



The topics have been arranged under the three seasons fall, win- 
ter, and spring in order to assist teachers in the seasonal treatment 
of topics. This seasonal plan is fundamental. It is useless to try to 
teach weeds in the winter when no weed material is at hand or spraying 
in the fall when no spraying is being done. While this is true it 
is not intended to make this seasonal line between topics at all ab- 
solute. Topics may sometimes be run over from winter to spring or 
from fall to winter even when it is not so indicated on the list. 

A recent bulletin issued by this department presents a "Course 
of Study in Elementary Agriculture for the Wisconsin Rural Schools", 
with topics arranged by months. This bulletin should be on file in 
every country school and since it presents very full outlines of work 
only a few brief suggestions will be given here regarding each topic. 
The bulletin will be referred to hereafter under the title "Course 
of Study." 



III. TREATMENT OF TOPICS 

1. Minimum list 

a. CJorn. This topic should be taken up at "the time the farmers 
are selecting or should be selecting their seed corn. See Course of 
Study, pp. 12, 20, 41, 47, 55, 65. 

Every pupil should make a corn dryer following the directions 
given on page 303. 

At least one trip should be taken by teacher and pupils to some 
good field of corn where permission can be obtained to select seed. 
The cooperation of the farmer who owns the field should be ,se- 



AGRICULTURE 221 

cured. He should be invited to be present if possible to give teacher 
and pupils helpful information. At the same time his interest may 
be aroused in something new. The corn should be put on the dryers 
and placed in a dry place for curing. 

Judging and scoring of corn should be carried on in the school 
at the regular agriculture period. This should be made a concrete 
exercise in which pupils are describing and comparing specimens 
actually in hand rather than talking about things in general or re- 
citing from a book. 

The testing of seed corn should be made an important part of 
the work in the spring. This should be begun five or six weeks 
before the corn planting season arrives. The work should be made a 
class exercise at school and the corn from as many of the farms of 
the neighborhood as possible should be tested. At the same time pu- 
pils should be encouraged to do some testing at home. The box 
test described in both the Wisconsin and the U. S. bulletins should 
be made use of at first. The rag doll test should also be tried. Se- 
cure Poster Bulletin 7 issued by the Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion, University of Wisconsin, Madison. This shows and describes 
both the box and the rag doll test. Write to the I. H. C. Co. Har- 
vester Building, Chicago, for circular on the rag doll test, and also 
other corn circulars. The rag doll circular can also be obtained 
from the Crop Improvement Committee, Bert Ball, Secretary, Audi- 
torium Building, Chicago. See also general list of references for 
circulars and bulletins on corn. 

Make the corn an important feature of the exhibit. The corn 
acre project is a fine one for the largest boys. 
b. Weeds. Course of Study, pp. 16, 28, 62. 
A large amount of attention should be given to getting ac- 
quainted with the weeds of the region and with their seeds. 

Children enjoy collecting and mounting specimens of both the 
plant and the seeds. Specimens of the plants may be mounted on 
cardboard or manila charts or in snecial mounts under glass. Seeds 
may be placed in small vials and fastened on charts. See Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 586. 

Finrh wopr? nion^ hnc ouPi or Tnnrf* RDecifil characteristics which 
^istinsruish it from others and giv^ it an ndvpntnqro. For instance, 
the burdock and the yellow dock have deen and fleshv tap rootq 
which have the habit of storing ut> food during the whole of the 
first vear's growth, and then of using this be^^^er snrinlv of moisture 
and this abundant supnlv of food for rapid srrowth and nrodiT^tion 
of p«ed during the sponnd year. Puslev has thick, juicy leaves 
which dry out very slowlv when the nlant is dug up giving the 
T>lant time to grow new roots before it wilts and dies. Many plants 
like the dandelion produce great numbers of flowers in compact 
heads and have special contrivances for seed distribution by the 
wind. Emphasize these app^^ial advantages. 



222 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

Many plants which may be classed as weeds have been studied in 
Nature Study. These should now be studied more from the stand- 
point of economic importance and means of eradication. 

The importance of helping to enforce the weed laws should be 
emphasized. According to Wisconsin laws the following weeds 
must be cut before going to seed: Canada thistle, burdock, white 
or oxeye daisy, snap dragon or toad flax, cockle bur, sow thistle, 
sour dock or yellow dock, wild mustard, wild parsnip, Russian 
thistle, wild barley, quack grass. 

Farm seeds offered for sale must not contain more than 1 in 1000 
of the following seeds: Canada thistle, quack grass, clover dod- 
der, field dodder, alfalfa dodder, wild mustard, Indian mustard, 
wild oats, corn cockle, oxeye daisy, snap dragon, sow thistle, nar- 
row leaved plantain or buck thorn. Teach pupils to know as many 
as possible of these plants and seeds. 

Secure and study Poster Bulletin 5, on Weeds to be Extermi- 
nated, issued by the Agricultural Experiment Station, Madison. 

c. Potatoes. Course of Study, pp. 73, 74, 111. 

This should be a leading topic in potato growing regions. It 
should usually be taken up in late September or early October. 

Visit a field at digging time to study and select seed potatoes. 

In judging, emphasize importance of .standard sizes and uni- 
formity. Extra large or overgrown potatoes receive little consider- 
ation by competent judges. Grading of potatoes is now receiving 
much attention. 

Bring out the importance of raising a few standard types that 
have proven well adapted to Wisconsin conditions and that have 
recognized market value. 

Visit any potato warehouse or starch factory in the neighborhood. 

Get some pupil to look up "Potato Seed Certification in Wiscon- 
sin." Get bulletin 252. Agricultural Experiment Station, Univer- 
sity "of Wisconsin, Madison, on this topic and for further informa- 
tion write th^ Horticultural Department, University of Wisconsin 
or get information from certified seed potato growers in the neigh- 
borhood. 

Secure , and study Poster Bulletins 1 and 2, Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, Madison, on Potato Diseases and Standard Potato 
Seed. 

Potato raising on a given area is one of the best projects for the 
boys. 

d. Legumes. Course of Study, pp. 77, 87, 115, 118. 

Be sure that the pupils learn to know the common clovers, al- 
falfa and sweet clover so that they can distinguish them readily by 
seeing either the plant or the seed. 

Let pupils prepare charts showing samples of the kinds that grow 
in the neighborhood. On each chart should be fastened specimens 
of pltint, seeds, blossoms and root showing tubercles for each kind. 



AGRICULTURE 223 

Let pupils make a. survey to find out how many acres of alfalfa 
are grown in the district. If little is raised find out why? 

Get one or more of the older boys to take the starting of a small 
field of alfalfa as a project. Seed can generally be obtained best 
through the county superintendent. 

Bring out the great value of the legumes in planning a rotation. 
Work out a number of rotations. 

Have all the class study carefully the conditions of success in 
growing alfalfa and tlie special advantages of this plant as a farm 
crop. 

Secure and study especially as many of the following as possible 
in addition to the text: Circular No. 3 5, Alfalfa as a Wisconsin 
Forage Plant, State Agricultural College, Madison; Farmers' Bul- 
letin No. 339 Alfalfa; No. 485 Sweet Clover; I. H. C. Co., Harvester 
Building, Chicago. 

(1) Studies in Alfalfa. (2) Sweet Clover. 
e. Exhibits. Course of Study, 11, 75. See also "Garden 
Work" under nature study. 

Make the exhibit the leading school event of the year. Nothing 
can do more to interest the pupils and the whole community not 
only in the agriculture but in all of the work of the school. Field 
projects by the agriculture boys, garden work and canning projects 
by the girls and garden work by the younger children should all 
be rounded up as a part of this event. Results of manual training 
and domestic science furnish excellent material. Any other at- 
tractive work of the school may be exhibited. 

Soon after school opens in September, find out how many pupils 
have had gardens or projects. Compare with the plans made in 
the spring. If you are a new teacher, look up the record left by 
your predecessor. If none is to be found ask pupils and school 
board about what plans were made, — size of plots, what was planted, 
and what products are available for the exhibit. Be sure to leave 
a complete record of your plans for your own use another year or 
for your nnmac-sor. Ask your county superintendent about any Boys* 
and Girls' Club w^ork that was started in the spring. Encourage 
puDils to give the best of care to their products so as to have as 
eood an exhibit as possible. Talk over plans for prizes and stimu- 
late^ rivalry. 

The time for the "Harvest Festival" should be set early since 
considerable work will be needed in preparing tables, exhibit boxes, 
etc., and in planning and advertising the event. See manual train- 
ing projects in this manual. Try to secure the cooperation of par- 
ents in your nlans. If possible, present the matter at some public 
gathering at the school or elsewhere. 

Make the keeping of a careful account showing cost, income, and 
profit an important part of the work. Ask for a written account of 
the whole project as a language exercise. Let pupils write invitations 



224 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

in the language class inviting patrons and the county superintendent. 
Use problems based on the garden and exhibit work in the arithmetic 
class. What are the plants or seeds worth per bunch, head, quart, 
peck or bushel? Estimate hov*^ much a half acre or an acre would yield 
at the same rate. What would be the profit after deducting the cost 
of labor in seeding, cultivating and harvesting? If the crop is used 
by the parent, a fair compensation should always be allowed the child. 
It is also important that the work should he done hy the child and 
not the parent. 

Arrange an attractive program. Appoint committees to arrange dec- 
orations. Select competent persons in the community to act as judges. 
Ask the cooperation of patrons especially interested in arranging 
pMzes. An exhibition of products raised by the farmers may be made 
a part of this festival, but the children's exhibit should be kept in a 
separate class. Probably a separate class should be made for the 
lower grades. If any of the younger children have raised flowers, 
these should be made a part of the exhibit and some may be made use 
of for decoration. Don't decide not to plan anything because projects 
to not seem at first to have succeeded very well. It is surprising 
what a showing can be made when little seems in sight at first. Start 
this year. It will be an immense help in arousing interest for another 
year. Look up and read "The Corn Lady" by Jessie Field. Township 
Library list, p. 23. 

f. Poultry. Course of Study, pp. 21, 32, 54, 57, 64, 68, 85, 88, 
90, 92, 97, 107, 117. 

In connection with the study of breeds and characteristics a 
good collection of pictures should be obtained. If possible a poul- 
try joiirnal should be taken. At any rate find out how many have 
or would be willing to take poultry papers at home. Let each pu- 
pil prepare a chart showing pictures of fine fowls of a particular 
breed. Use these as the basis of class work. Pictures may be cut 
from papers, advertising circulars, etc. 

Keep a bulletin board on which may be shown special items of 
interest and pictures of birds which have made unusual records. 

Take the class to visit some farm where fine poultry is kept. 
Get the owner to give the class a demonstration. Give the class 
some practice in judging good birds. 

Get as many pupils as you can to take charge of the poultry fiock 
at home and keep careful records of feeding, egg production etc. 
Work out with the class rations for these fiocks. Sometimes it 
may be possible for a boy or girl to start a special poultry project 
at home. This is just as interesting and valuable to girls as boys. 
If any pupils are ready to build a poultry house at home make this 
the basis of the study of poultry house construction. 

Let pupils make a list of the kinds of chickens kept in the neigh- 
borhood and from this data develop the advantages of keeping a 
single good breed, giving uniformity of size and color of eggs and 
commanding often a better price. 



AGRICULTURE 225 

Emphasize the importance of careful selection of the hens to be 
used for breeding purposes. The average farm hen is said to pro- 
duce about 80 eggs per year, but by careful selection and feeding 
this average has been raised to 200 eggs in a flock of 360 hens. 

Bring out the advantages of feeding so as to get hens to lay in 
the winter when the prices of eggs are high. Emphasize the im- 
portance of cleanliness and good ventilation in the care of hens. 
Look up and study bulletins on poultry house construction. 

The poultry project is excellent for either boys or girls. See 
Course of Study. 

g. Dairying. Course of Study, pp. 25-61, 

Wisconsin has been the leading dairy state for some time. The 
industry is steadily growing. This topic should therefore be espe- 
cially emphasized. Every country school should have some dairy 
paper. Find out what dairy papers are taken at the homes of the 
pupils. 

Have pupils use picture material for making charts to show 
types and breeds as suggested under poultry. Keep before the 
pupils on a bulletin board the best dairy information and pictures 
of famous animals found in papers or elsewhere. See farm papers 
and circulars for pictures. 

Send to the Wisconsin Department of Agriculture, Madison, for 
a copy of the Wisconsin Breeder's Directory in which the addresses 
of all the National Breeders' Associations may be found. By letting 
pupils write to these associations, fine pictures may often be ob- 
tained. 

Visit with the class one or more of the best herds of the neigh- 
borhood and get the owner to giv^ the class a talk on the points 
of a good dairy cow. By use of a diagram have pupils learn the 
names of the parts of a dairy cow. Give some practice in judging 
by a score card. 

Every district should own a Babcock tester if possible. A six 
or eight bottle covered tester should be obtained. In some cases 
several are owned by the county and sent around to the schools 
by the county superintendent. As many samples of milk from the 
pupils' homes should be tested as possible. The work may be ex- 
tented to other farms. 

Get pupils to weigh the milk at home and keep a milk sheet 
showing record of five or more cows for a week or longer. Milk 
sheets may be made or can be obtained from almost any dealer in 
creamery supplies. The Wisconsin Live Stock Association, Madison, 
has sometimes furnished them. The Creamery Package Company at 
Fort Atkinson and the Creamery Package Company of Minneapolis 
will give to districts from 25 to 30 per cent discount on Babcock 
testers and other supplies. This will bring the price of the tester 
dov/n to about $7.00 or $7.50, an amount which every county 
school ought to afford. 



15— S. M. 



k 



226 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

Emphasize the importance of cleanliness in the care of dairy pro- 
ducts. 

Have pupils determine the ration being fed to cows at home 
weighing the feed as accurately as possible. From tables showing 
composition of various feeds calculate the nutritive ratio. Have 
pupils look up rations from standard authorities and compare. 
Let them balance a ration with the feeds used at home. 

Emphasize the importance of breeding up the dairy herd by care- 
ful selection on the basis of the Babcock test and the milk scales. 
The average dairy cow in Wisconsin produces about 170 pounds 
of butter fat annually and yet many herds with careful selection and 
good handling have been brought up to an average of 400-500 
pounds. It is estimated that from % to % of all the cows being 
milked in Wisconsin are "boarders" that is, do not pay for their 
feed. Bring out the importance of finding out what each cow is 
earning and of getting rid of the "boarder". Emphasize the value 
of the pure bred sire. 

Bring out the importance of dairying in relation to soil fertility. 
Secure and study Poster Bulletins 4 and 6, Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Madison. Secure from the I. H. Cj Co., Harvester Build- 
ing, Chicago, the bulletin on "The Golden Stream." 

Calf raising makes an excellent project for boys. Get boys to 
induce their fathers to give them calves. See Course of Study, p. 61. 
h. Birds. Course of Study, p. 65. 

Consult the "Bird Study" topics in the Nature Study Outlines. 
Extend this work giving more attention to the economic side and 
emphasizing the great benefit of the birds in destroying insects, 
eating seeds and in killing wild mice and other small animals that 
injure crops. Show how even with the help of birds the damage 
caused by insects each year in the United States is $800,000,000 or 
more. Every one knows that birds feed on insects, but few people 
realize to what an extent we are dependent on the birds for holding 
in check the millions of insects that attack our useful plants. Both 
poet and scientist have voiced this truth. A scientist recently 
estimated that if all birds were destroyed the land would become 
uninhabitable for human beings within three years. With prophetic 
vision Longfellow stated the same truth many years ago in "Birds 
of Killingworth." 

Have pupils collect facts showing how much good certain birds 
do. For instance, 5500 eggs of plant lice were in the stomach of 
a single chickadee. Four other stomachs of the same species con- 
tained 600 eggs and 105 female moths of the canker worm a very 
destructive insect to trees. In the nesting box of a pair of purple 
martins was found over a quart of the wing covers of the little 
cucumber beetle. Tree sparrows in Iowa eat 875 tons of weed 
seed annually. The state of Pennsylvania is estimated to have 
sustained a loss of nearly four million dollars in a year and a half 



AGRICULTURE 227 

by placing a bounty on hawks and owls resulting in the killing of 
over a hundred thousand of these birds. 

Emphasize any available information that can be found on 
enemies of birds and causes of their destruction. 

Let pupils look up and make special reports on particular birds 
or groups of birds in relation to their usefulness. Look up especially 
the quail or Bob White which is one of the most useful of birds. 
See Farmers' Bulletins under Fall Topic 1, Bird Study. See Agri- 
cultural Yearbook 1903 on "Bob White". 

A few birds, though a surprisingly small number, are harmful. 
Make a list of these. Have a special report on the English Sparrow. 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 493. 

Arrange birds in groups according to color, migration and food 
habits making lists under each. 

(1) Color: mainly black, black and white, gray and slate 
colored, brown or brownish, conspicuously green or yellow. 

(2) Migration: permanent residents, summer residents, win- 
ter residents, transients. 

(3) Food habits 

(a) Insect eating, seed eating, eating small animals. 

(b) Sky sweepers, tree gleaners, bark inspectors, ground 
gleaners, wise watchers, weed warriors. 

See Weed and Dearborn. Birds and their Relation to Man. 
Florence Merriam Bailey. Birds of Village and Field. 
U. S. Yearbook on Agriculture, 1898, 1900, 1906. 

i. Garden work. Course of Study, pp. 18, 49, 53, 56, 60. 63, 
66, 68, 75, 101, 112, 114. 

In the fall this work should include the exhibit and the gathering 
and caring for seeds to be used the following spring. In the spring 
gardens should be planned, planted and cared for and lessons should 
be given on seeds and preparation of soil. The garden project is 
especially valuable for the younger pupils and for the girls of the 
agriculture class. It may be engaged in also by any of the agri- 
culture boys who are not too busy with other projects. Raising 
and canning tomatoes is especially good for girls. Although the 
school garden if it could be provided for, would be exceedingly 
desirable, it is! probable that in most cases the home gardens are 
best adapted to the conditions of Wisconsin rural schools. A little 
may be done however with flowers and plants at school. 

j. Home gardens. Plans should be started as early as 
some time in March. A sunny and well drained plot should be 
selected. For younger pupils this should be about 6 feet by 16 
feet; for older ones about 15 by 30 feet. Sizes may be modified 
to suit special needs. 

Sweet peas, nasturtiums, pansies, poppies, verbenas, petunias, 
asters, and bachelor's buttons are desirable flowers. Potatoes, 



228 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

carrots,, beets, cabbages, onions, pumpkins, beans and tomatoes are 
good for vegetables. Select two or three flowers and three or four 
vegetables. It is best not to try too many. Pansies, verbenas, 
petunias, asters, tomatoes and cabbages should be planted early in 
a window with good light or in a hotbed till ready to be trans- 
planted outside. One or two transplantings inside are a great 
advantage. 

Use seeds saved in the fall. Get pupils to send for seed catalogs, 
(see farm papers) and have them order seeds if parents are willing. 
'Write letters in composition work. 

Make a careful record of all plans showing names of pupils, size 
of plots and what is to be raised by each. Put this record in a 
special blank book labeled "Garden Projects." Be sure io leave 
this record for your successor if you do not return. Direct pupils to 
keep a careful account of all expenses and income so that net profits 
may be shown in the fall. If parents use products a fair price 
should be allowed. Explain plan of fall exhibit and prizes, arrange 
contests, and stimulate rivalry in raising the best products. 

Give special lessons on preparation of the soil and planting of 
seeds. Bring out the advantages of good tillage, fall plowing, drain- 
age, fertilizers, etc. See that work is done at the right time. Have 
pupils draw a plan showing arrangement of rows, distances apart, 
etc. The soil should be gently packed over most seeds to bring 
moisture in contact with them. Plants should be hoed often and 
watered if needed. Caution the pupils against enemies of the garden 
such as chickens, weeds, cut worms, grubs and other insects. Fos- 
ter friends such as birds, toads,, earthworms. 

Encourage pupils the last thing before school closes to give gar- 
dens good care during the summer so as to make as good an ex- 
hibit as possible. A note sent home to parents may help. ^ 

Children may write these notes for language work. 

(2) Garden work at school. Raise plants in boxes for home 
gardens. See outline above. Boxes should be about 4 inches deep. 
Plant flowers about the building, on the borders of the yard or 
along the edge of shrubbery. Do not as a rule put beds in the cen- 
ter of the yard. Set out geraniums or other plants previously kept 
in the schoolhouse. Get some pupil or liMior person living near 
the school to care for the plants during the summer. Window 
boxes may be made very attractive. Connect with Arbor Day plans. 
A tulip bed set out before ground freezes in the fall is most at- 
tractive in the spring. 

k. Soil. Course of Study, pp. 24, 37, 59, 74, 103, 110. 

Do not go too much into the technical study of soil. 

Samples of the different kinds found in the neighborhood should 
be collected and studied with material before the class. It should 
be shown that limestone produced a clay soil, sandstone a sandy 



AGRICULTURE 229 

soil, and granite roclis clay with some sand. Show advantages of 
good tillage. 

Simple experiments should be carried out to show effect of water 
on different soils, capillarity, drainage, and conservation of mois- 
ture. Such experiments are found in textbooks. 

Emphasize the importance of animal husbandry which keeps the 
plant foods on the farm in the manure. Show that the greatest 
asset of the country is the soil and that it should therefore be most 
carefully conserved. Teach the value of liming the soil. 

Bring out the value of covered manure pits, cement gutters back 
of the animals, the avoidance of piling manure under eaves and 
of hauling manure directly on to the land. Make a list of crops 
especially adapted for cover crops and green manuring. Worx 
out three, four and five year rotations showing advantages of each 
and adaptations to different kinds of soil. Show how dairying 
keeps the largest per cent of the soil fertility on the farm. Secure 
and hang up for study Poster Bulletin 4, Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Madison. 

2. Supplementary topics 

a. Fruit growing. Course of Study, pp. 23, 33, 52, 62. 

This topic should be given special attention in fruit growing re- 
gions such as Crawford, Richland, Door and Bayfield counties. 

Have children bring apples to school for the study of varieties. 
Test recognition of varieties. Get each pupil to make a list of kinds 
and varieties of fruit raised at home. Group varieties of apples 
under the headings: early apples, fall apples, winter apples. For 
orchard survey see Course of Study,.p. 23. If possible take the class 
to a packing house to see how apples are packed and marketed. 

Find out how much spraying is done at homes of pupils. 

Get some pupil to make some grafting wax and have pupils con- 
struct models to show different forms of grafting. 

Study insects and diseases. The codling moth and curculio ap- 
ple pest are said to cause a damage in this country of $12,000,000 
a year, to say nothing of a cost of perhaps $8,000,000 a year for 
spraying to keep them from destroying more. The San Jose scale 
is one of the worst scourges to fruit growers in other states. It 
should be kept out of Wisconsin. 

b. The silo. Course of Study, pp. 43, 51, 72. 

Find out how many silos there are in the district and in the 
county. See Bulletin No. 4, Wisconsin Department of Agriculture, 
Madison. Compare the prosperity of a region with the number of 
silos. What kinds are most popular? Study kinds with advantages 
and cost of each. 

Study crops best for silage, how the silo is filled, why tramping 
is important, why the outside should be tramped more than the 
center, how many inches should be fed off each day and why, re- 
lation of diameter to number of cows, advantage of setting the bot- 



230 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

torn of the silo below ground, why not all below ground, why corn 
is the main silage crop, how many tons of corn silage to the acre, 
when the corn should be cut for filling the silo, kinds of corn best 
for silage, effect of frost on silage. 

Let pupils calculate capacity of silos for arithmetic work. Area 
= ttR. Capacity or volume^area times height. 

Sum up why farmers should build silos. 

Let pupils send for circulars or catalogs of any silo companies. 
See farm papers. Many valuable facts are often found in these 
catalogs. 

c. Insects. Course of Study, pp. 18, 35, 9 9. 

Look up also "Supplementary Topics" under fall topic 2, Nature 
Study Outlines. Extend this work. 



IV. TESTS AND EXAMINATIONS 

The following suggestions indicate the kind of knowledge and 
ability pupils should be able to show when they have finished the 
course in agriculture. 

1. They should know the standard varieties of corn raised in the 
locality, and as far as possible in the whole state, with advantages 
of each for various conditions of soil and climate. This knowledge 
should be tested by the identification and description of actual speci- 
mens rather than by merely talking or writing about them. Pupils 
should further be able to demonstrate from specimens the points of 
a good ear of seed corn or to score a ten ear sample. The impor- 
tance of ear testing of seed corn should be well understood and pu- 
pils should be capable of either describing or demonstrating one 
or more of the methods in common use. 

2. Pupils should have the ability to name correctly at least fifty 
common weeds of the locality, give some important characteristics 
of each, and should be able to identify samples of the seeds of each. 
Collected weed specimens should be on hand for this test. The 
complete list of weeds included in the Wisconsin weed law should 
be known and there should be ability to identify any of these that 
grow in the locality. 

3. There should be the ability to recognize and give the special 
advantages of each of the standard varieties of potatoes grown in 
Wisconsin and especially in the locality. Pupils should be able to 
select a good exhibit sample of ten potatoes or a half bushel, show- 
ing good judgment as to size, shape, uniformity, freedom from dis- 
ease, etc. Knowledge should cover the advantages of hill selection, 
the common potato diseases of the locality and how these should 
be treated. 

4. There should be a knowledge of the characteristics of the le- 
guminous plants as to roots, stems, leaves, fiowers, fruits, and of 



AGRlCULTtJRE 231 

their importance in relation to soil fertility and crop rotation. Pu- 
pils should be able to recognize the various leguminous plants. 

5. Pupils should know the standard varieties of chickens with 
characteristics of each. They should also have a knowledge of poul- 
try foods and be able to figure a ration. Let pupils draw a simple 
plan for a poultry house and explain the essentials in poultry house 
construction. 

6. Let pupils give a Babcock milk test demonstration and explain 
the value of using milk scales. Ask them to figure a balanced ra- 
tion with a certain list of food materials such as corn silage, clover 
hay, bran, ground oats, gluten meal. Allow them to consult au- 
thorities to get necessary facts about composition of foods, nutri- 
tive ratios, etc. 

7. Test the pupils ability to name the parts of a dairy cow from 
a diagram. Let them demonstrate the points of a good dairy cow 
from pictures or, if it can be arranged, from an actual herd. 

8. Pupils should know at least fifty species of birds common in 
the locality and should be able to give definite knowledge showing 
in what ways and to what extent birds are useful. 

9. Let pupils write a composition of from two to three hundred 
words on some such topic as alfalfa, usefulness of birds to the 
farmer, sweet clover, importance of careful accounts on the farm, 
selecting seed corn, etc. 

10. Pupils should have a knowledge of the plant in relation to 
the soil especially as to foods supplied the plant, common sources 
of these, how the plant gets them and how they are used. Impor- 
tance of fertilizers and soil conservation should be emphasized. 

11. Give special credit for the construction of bird boxes, corn 
dryers, seed test boxes, etc. Allow credit also for the successful 
completion of home projects, club work, and other practical work. 

Note: The county superintendent in each county may indicate in 
a more specific way than is done here the points of local importance 
which should be emphasized. 



V. REFERENCES 

Every teacher should have a number of good texts for reference 
use, in addition to the text in the hands of the pupils. Consult the 
county superintendent about the best ones to use. A brief selected 
list of reference books is given here. For others see Township li- 
brary list, pp. 66-73. 

Large use should be made of available bulletins and circulars of 
information. Lists are given below of those which can be secured 
from the United States Department of Agriculture at Washington, 
D. C, and from the Agricultural College at Madison. Many of these 
may be in the school library. The teacher should check over those 



232 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

on hand and send for the others, most of which can be obtained 
free. If difficulty is found in getting those from the United States 
department, they may often be secured by asking the help of the 
congressman of the district. These bulletins should be filed by sub- 
jects in library file boxes. Such boxes can be obtained of any library 
supply company or from H. Schulz &, Company, Chicago, at a very 
.small expense. Much valuable reference material may be found in 
Farmers' Institute Bulletins, and in the U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture Yearbooks, copies of both of which are generally to be found in 
the country schools. Most of the books in the following list are on the 
Township library list and may be in the library already. Others 
are especially good if they can be obtained. Bulletins and circulars 
of information are listed in order of numbers as a means of facilitat- 
ing ordering and as a convenience in checking. These bulletins are 
arranged under topics in the "Course of Study" above referred to. 

1. Reference books 

Wan-en. Elements of agriculture. (T) 

Cromwell. Agriculture and life. (T) 

Myrick. The book of corn.' Judd. $1.50. 

Shamel. Manual of corn judging. Judd. $0.50. 

Fraser. The potato. (T) 

Pammell. Weeds of farm and garden. 

Snyder. Soils and fertilizers. Macmillan. $1.2 5. 

Lewis. Poultry keeping. (T) 

Plumb. Types and breeds of farm animals. (T) 

Van JSTorman. First lessons in dairying. (T) 

Green. Popular fruit growing. Vv'ebb. $1.0 0. 

Green. Vegetable garden. Webb. $1.00. 

Weed & Dearborn. Birds in relation to man. (T) 

Bailey. Farm and garden rule book. (T) 

2. Periodicals. 

Hoard's Dairyman. (T) 
Wisconsin Agriculturist., (T) 
Breeder's Gazette. Chicago, $2.00. 
American Poultry Journal. (T) 
Poultry Success. (T) 

3. Material from the State Agricultural College 

a. Bulletins 

No. 

33 Rations for dairy covv^s 

38 One hundred American rations for dairy cows 

4 5 Apple culture 

49 Maintenance of soil fertility 

7 5 Testing cows at the farm 
76 Also 2 0, 3 9 — Noxious weeds 

8 3 Silage and the construction of modern silos 
84 Bovine tuberculosis in Wisconsin 

91 Oat Smut in Wisconsin 

9 8 On the prevention of oat smut and potato scab 
103 Soiling crops for dairy cows in Wisconsin 

105 Improvement of home and school grounds 
108 Trees and shrubs for shade and ornament 
110 Spraying fruit trees 



AGRICULTURE 233 



111 Oat smut and its prevention 

112 Alfalfa in Wisconsin 
121 Alfalfa or lucerne 
125 Silo construction 

13 5 Spraying- of potatoes for leaf blight and rot 

139 Principles and maintenance of soil fertility 

153 Portable hog- houses 

168 Spraying potatoes for blight and the potato beetle 
*17 6 Opportunity for profitable farming in upper Wiscon- 
sin 

177 Potato culture in northern Wisconsin 

183 Growing clover for seed and forage in northern Wis- 
consin 

190 Common insect pests of fruits in Y/isconsin 
*2 01 Planting the com.mercial orchard 
*2 02 The management of heavy clay soils 
*204 The improvement of sandy soils 
*20 5 The development of marsh soils 

207 The management of a bearing orchard 

214 Concrete silo construction 

215 Poultry house construction 

221 Getting the most profit from farm m.anure 
*223 Climate of Wisconsin in relation to agriculture 

22 5 Commercial varieties of potatoes in Wisconsin 
*229 The right drain for the right place 
*2 30 Soil acidity and liming 

2 34 Rural social centers in Wisconsin 
*23 5 Soiling crops vs. silage for dairy cows in summer 
*242 Pork production in Wisconsin 
*2 61 Poultry raising in Wisconsin 

b. Circulars of information 

No. 
3 Directions for spraying potatoes 

*4 Wisconsin seed inspection law 

*7 Agricultural extension service 

*8 Corn judging 

12 Sprajang the home orchard 
*18 The curing and testing of seed corn 

19 The control of quack grass and Canada thistles 
*23 A catechism on Bovine Tuberculosis 
*27 How to use the Babcock test 

34 Sewage disposal for rural homes 

3 5 Importance of alfalfa as a Wisconsin forage plant 

36 Potato diseases in Wisconsin and their control 

38 Wisconsin banker's agricultural contests 
*48 How to rid our farms of weeds 
*51 Social surveys of rural school districts 
*52 Control of potato diseases in Wisconsin 
*54 Hog cholera 

Note: Titles starred are available for free distribution. 

4. Circulars from Wisconsin Department of Agriculture (sent on 
application; address, Madison, V7is.) 

No. 

1 Wisconsin nursery and orchard inspection law 

2 How to control the cottony maple scale 

3 Common spraying materials and other insecticides 

4 Agricultural statistics for Vv^'isconsin 



234 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



5. Farmers' bulletins from United States Department of Agriculture. 

No. 

22 Feeding- of farm, animals 

44 Commercial fertilizers, composition and use 

51 Standard varieties of chickens 

54 Some common birds in their relation to agriculture 

55 Dairy herd, its formation and management 
77 Liming of soils 

106 Breeds of dairy cattle 
113 The apple and how to grow it 
' 12 7 Important insecticides, directions for their prepara- 

tion and use 
134 Tree planting on rural school grounds 
154 Home fruit garden, preparation and care 
15 5 How insects effect health in rural districts 
157 Propag-ation of plants 
181 Pruning 

185 Beautifying the home grounds 
188 Weeds used in medicine 
192 Barnyard manure 
195 Annual flowering plants 
19 6 Usefulness of American toad 
2 05 Pig management 

206 IVEilk fever, its simple and successful treatment 
218 -School garden 
220 Tomatoes 

229 Production of good seed corn 
247 Control of codling moth and apple scab 
2 53 Germination of seed corn 
2 55 Home vegetable garden 
257 Soil fertility 

270 Modern conveniences for the farm home 
275 Gipsy moth and how to control it 
278 Leguminous crops for green manuring 

2 87 Poultry management 
292 Cost of filling silos 

313 Harvesting and storing corn 
321 Use of split-log drag on earth roads 
323 Clover farming on sandy jack-pine lands of the North 
339 Alfalfa 

346 Computation of rations for farm animals by use of 
energy values 

3 51 Tuberculin test of cattle for tuberculosis 
355 Successful poultry and dairy farm 

379 Hog cholera 

385 Boys* and girls' agricultural clubs 

406 Soil conservation 

407 Potato as truck crop 

408 School exercises in plant production 

409 School lessons on corn 

413 Care of milk and its use in home 

414 Corn cultivation 

415 Seed corn 

428 Testing farm seeds in home and in rural school 

438 Hog houses 

444 Remedies and preventives against mxosquitoes 

455 Red clover 

456 Our grossbeaks and their value to agriculture 
459 House flies 



AGRICULTURE 235 



478 How to prevent typhoid fever 
485 Sweet clover 

491 Profitable management of small apple orchard on 

general farm 

492 More important insect and fungous enemies of fruit 

and foliage of apple 
49 3 English sparrow as a pest 
49 5 Alfalfa seed production 

49 7 Some common game, aquatic, and rapacious birds in 

relation to man 

50 5 Benefits of improved roads 

506 Food of some well-known birds of forest, farm, and 

garden 

507 Smuts of wheat, oats, barley, and corn 
511 Farm bookkeeping 

513 Fifty common birds of farm and orchard 

521 Canning tomatoes at home and in club work 

528 Hints to poultry raisers 

530 Important poultry diseases 

533 Good seed potatoes and how to produce them 

537 How to grown an acre of corn 

540 Stable fly 

543 Common white grubs 

545 Controlling Canada thistles 

562 Organization of boys' and girls' poultry clubs 

566 Boys' pig clubs 

572 System of farm cost accounting 

574 Poultry house construction 

578 Making and feeding of silage 

58 5 Natural and artificial incubation of hen's eggs 

586 Collection and preservation of plant material for use 

in study of agriculture 
589 Home made silos 

59 7 Road drag and how it is used 
602 Production of clean milk 

606 Collection and preservation of insects and other ma- 
terial for use in study of agriculture 
609 Bird houses and how to build them 
612 Breeds of beef cattle 
617 School lessons on corn 
619 Breeds of draft horses 

621 How to attract birds in northeastern United States 
624 Natural and artificial brooding of chickens 
630 Some common birds useful to farmer 
637 Grasshopper problem and alfalfa culture 
6 59 True clothes moths 
66 Weeds, how to control them 
662 Apple-tree tent caterpillar 
666 Foot-and-mouth disease 
679 House flies 

682 Simple trap nest for poultry 
689 Plan for small dairy house 
692 Game laws for 1915 

Other helpful bulletins have been prepared by the Bureau of Plant 
Industry, the Bureau of Animal Industry, and the Bureau of En- 
tomology. Those especially interested should send to the United 
States Department of agriculture for separate catalogs of publi- 
cations on plants, animals, insects, birds, and others. 



23 6 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



HYGIENE, SANITATION, AND 
PHYSIOLOGY 



I. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 

1. All the work outlined under hygiene and sanitation should be 
taught during the morning or opening exercises. The topics dealt 
with are life problems and most of them apply with equal force 
to pupils of all ages. They should, therefore, be presented to the 
whole school and not to a small section or class. It is necessary 
that this instruction be given from year to year in order that it 
may stick and because of the rapid advancement made in science, 
sanitation, and kindred subjects, and the necessarily added informa- 
tion at the disposal of the teacher, the school, and the community. 
Each topic should be prepared and presented by the teacher usually 
without the use of a textbook.. The older pupils may be called 
upon to add information or report upon certain readings bearing 
upon the subject, but the teacher must see that all matter pre- 
sented is made intelligible to the whole school. 

2. The opening exercise period is one of the most important 
periods of the day and the material given should be reviewed from 
day to day, proper drill exercises given on it, and every effort made 
to fix the essential laws, principles, and subject matter in the pupils' 
minds. The teacher must not be satisfied in giving the children 
a knowledge of the laws of health alone, but must strive for the 
application of them until the habits of right living 'are formed. She 
should remember also that she is teaching more by example than 
by class room instruction. Definite application of the things taught 
should be insisted upon in the school, and, so far as possible, at 
the homes. It is from the school that we must get the leaven- 
ing influence in the school district that is needed in order that the 
individual may intelligently care for the health of his body and 
keep it efficient, and in order that sanitary precautions be taken in 
erecting and locating houses and all other buildings. 

3. The American Medical Association spends thousands of dol- 
lars annually in providing short articles on health subjects for pub- 
lication in magazines and newspapers throughout the country, and 
has established lecture bureaus that make it possible for many 
thousands of people to hear illustrated lectures given by local phy- 



HYGIENE, SANITATION, AND PHYSIOLOGY 237 

sicians and dealing with those ailments to which we are most sub- 
ject. State and local societies and associations have been organ- 
ized, whose object is the education of the layman in the preven- 
tion of certain diseases. It is these organizations, together with 
the aid of the schools, that have made the public health conditions 
today far superior to what they were a few years ago. 



II. COURSE OF STUDY 

The outlines of the following topics are brief but it is hoped 
that enough has been said under each one to direct the thought 
along lines interesting and profitable in the field of sanitation and 
hygiene. 

1. Care of face and hands 

a. What kind of water should be used? 

b. What places are often neglected? 

c. What things are needed In washing and how should we use 
them ? 

d. Why use toilet soap? Why not use laundry soap? 

e. Discuss liquid soap, kinds of receivers for it, soft soap — how 
it is made and for what use, — care of hard soap after using it. 

f. Demonstrate the use of paper towels, kind of holders, and the 
cost per pupil per year in using them. 

2. Care of nails 

a. Teach how and when to use scissors, nippers, nail file, etc. 

b. What other things are needed to keep nails clean? 

c. Why should we not use a knife? 

d. How shall we treat hang nails? 

e. Why not bite the nails? 

f. How should the nails look when well kept? 

g. What are the uses of nails? 

3. Care of hair and scalp 

a. The neglect of the proper care of the hair is too common with 
both children and adults. This may be largely overcome if teachers 
will take occasion often to teach the necessary articles and practices 
in keeping it healthy and clean. 

b. Name the things necessary to keep the hair clean. 

c. How often should it be washed? Why not oftener? 

d. Is it necessary to use both brush and comb? Why? 

e. Draw a section of the skin showing the hair, oil sacks, muscles 
controlling the hair, blood vessels, etc. 

f. Why and when does the hair stand straight up? 

g. What are the uses of hair by uncivilized people? 
h. Discuss ways of combing hair by different nations, 
i. What is dandruff? How^ may it be cured? 

j. How are children having lice to be treated? 

k. Is any commercial use made of the hair of the lower animals? 

4. Care of the mouth and teeth 

a. When and how should the mouth be washed? 

b. Many disease germs enter the body through the mouth. 

c. How often should teeth be brushed? 

d. Give all reasons for brushing the teeth. 



238 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

e. Brush the g-ums because healthy gums will grow healthy sec- 
ond. 

f. Demonstrate the motion of the brush in keeping- the teeth 
clean. Occasionally have a tooth brush drill. 

g-. Discuss and show samples of paste, powder, and cream. 

h. Discuss the first and second teeth and the relative importance 
of each. 

i. Show how crooked and badly formed second teeth are caused 
by not removing first teeth. 

j. Teach devices for straightening teeth and how teeth are abused 
in biting hard substances. 

k. Have pupils visit the dentist often, and, if possible, have a 
dentist speak to the school on the care of the teeth. 

1. White, regular, and sound teeth add beauty and comfort 
throughout life. 

m. Decayed teeth look, smell, and taste bad, cause pain, and ill 
health and make sound teeth decay. 

n. Secure a collection of decayed and filled teeth from a dentist. 
If this is impossible, secure teeth of the lower animals. Have pupils 
break them to observe different coatings, as well as to see nerve cavity. 

5. Care of nose and throat 

a. The nose is used for breathing and smelling. We should al- 
ways breathe through it, not through the mouth. 

b. Teach how the little hairs of the nose keep dirt and disease 
germs from passing into the lungs. 

c. Discuss the shape and motion of the little hairs, and how the 
nose warms and moistens the air before it reaches the lungs. 

d. Colds and catarrh are diseases of the lining of the nose and are 
usually caused by breathing foul, stuffy air carrying dust and germs. 
They may be largely prevented by breathing pure air. 

e. By holding the nose and closing the mouth, show how to force 
the air through the eustachian tube to the ear drum or tympanum. 
You should hear a click, which shows the tube is open. If it is closed, 
you will have earache, and gatherings in the ear which may burst the 
drum, cause much pain, and often produce deafness. Air should not 
be forced in when one has a cold as infection may result. 

f. Discuss how and when to use the handkerchief. 

g. Adenoids are soft, grape-like bodies that sometimes grow in 
the pharynx just behind the opening of the nose. They partly close 
the openings of the nose, the eustachian tube, cause mouth breathing, 
and often produce deafness. They should be removed as mouth 
breathing deforms the upper jaw and allows cold, dirty air to go into 
the lungs. If children appear stupid and habitually breathe through 
the mouth they probably have adenoids. 

h. The throat is kept in much better condition if it is gargled 
daily with water containing a little salt. 

i. Collect and show pictures of mouth breathers. 

6. Care of the eyes 

a. Pupils should read only in good light. Reading at night with 
poor light is a common cause of eye strain. Imagine a plant in the 
school is a lamp. Have the children sit so that the light will fall cor- 
rectly on the book. Ask them to report on several successive days if 
they sit in this position when reading at home. If not, what prevented 
them from sitting in such a position? 

b. Notice how the bones surrounding the eyes protect them from 
injury, also how the eye lashes protect them from dust and germs. 

c. Study the shape of the eye lashes. They do not get entangled 
because the upper ones curve upward and the lower ones curve down- 
ward. 



HYGIENE, SANITATION, AND PHYSIOLOGY 239 



d. Teach the position of the eye or tear glands, and about the 
little duct leading from the eye to the nose. 

e. Which corner of the eye do tears run out of? Why? 

f. When a cinder enters the eye during the day it is usually 
found in the corner next to the nose the next morning. Why? 

g. Teach how to remove particles from eyes, and that all eyes 
should be protected from infectious germs which get into them from 
dirty fingers and dust in the air. Germs also enter the eyes through 
the blood during such contagious diseases as measles and scarlet fever. 

h. Trachoma is an inflammation of the mucous membrane which 
lines the inner surface of the eyelids. It is a germ disease and is 
transmitted from the secretion of the diseased eye to the well eye. 
The common means of transmission are such articles as towels, hand- 
kerchiefs, bed linen, etc. Over half of those who have it are made 
blind, and the economic usefulness of every patient is greatly de- 
creased. Granulated eyelids are the first stage of the disease. There 
are comparatively few people who have seen cases of it, but, with the 
westward trend of population, it is being spread all over the United 
States. The necessity of individual towels, clean bed linen, blankets in 
place of quilts, etc., should be impressed upon the pupils' minds. 

i. Pupils with diseased eyes should not g^ttend school without the 
consent of a health ofificer or doctor. Teachers should explain to par- 
ents the necessity of caring for the children's eyes and the danger 
from not doing so. 

j. Test all eyes in the school twice a year by the use of the Snellen 
Charts. They may be secured from P. A. Hardy & Co., 10 S. Wabash, 
Chicago, 111. Price 25 cents. They may often be secured from a local 
oculist at a much less cost. 

k. Blind children are taught to read raised characters known as 
traille, or point, through the sense of touch. 

1. The State School for the Blind is located at Janesville, and at 
present there are day schools for the blind at Milwaukee and Racine. 

m. Information about the State School may be secured by ad- 
dressing the Superintendent of the State School for the Blind, Janes- 
ville, Wis., and information about the day schools by addressing the 
State Superintendent, Madison, Wis. 

7. Care of the ear 

a. Draw on blackboard or show a cut of a cross section of outer 
ear, ear canal and drum which entirely divides the ear canal from the 
eustachian tube. This tube leads from the drum to the throat, opens 
just back of the nasal passage and is always filled with air. The ear 
wax is secreted by the lining of the drum, flows outward and carries 
dirt and insects out of the ear. 

b. Do not pick the ears with hairpins, toothpicks or ear spoons. 
You may destroy the tiny glands which secret the wax. (What should 
you do?) 

c. Never strike or pull the ear. Do not shout in the ear. Avoid 
very shrill or very loud sounds near the ear. Any of these causes may 
break the drum (tympanum), or disturb the delicate bones that trans- 
mit the vibration to the nerves leading to the brain. 

d. All pupils should be tested at the beginning of the school year 
to determine whether or not there is defective hearing. The distance 
at which the tick of an ordinary watch can be heard by the pupil is a 
simple test sufficiently accurate to reveal any serious defect. Test each 
ear separately. The pupil's eyes should be closed or covered during 
the test. Noticeable defects should be reported to parents. 

e. The state maintains day schools for the deaf in connection with 
the public schools in the following cities: Antigo, Appleton, Ashland, 
Black River Falls, Bloomington, Eau Claire, Fond du Lac, Green Bay, 
Janesville, Kenasha, La Crosse, Madison, Marinette, Marshfleld, Mil- 



240 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



waukee, Mineral Point, New London, Oshkosh, Platteville, Racine, 
Rice Lake, Ripon, Sheboygan, Stevens Point, Superior and Wausau. 
In these schools deaf children are taught to speak and read the lips of 
persons speaking to them. Children who stammer or have defective 
speech may receive special instruction in these schools. For informa- 
tion concerning- these schools, address the State Superintendent of 
Public Intruction, Madison, Wis. 

f. The State School for the Deaf is located at Delavan. For in- 
formation concerning the sanae, address the Superintendent of State 
School for the Deaf, Delavan, Wis. 

8. Care of tlie skin 

a. The dirt on the skin comes through the skin from the body in 
the form of oil and refuse matter and also from the air or from ob- 
jects on which it has collected. 

b. Everyone should bathe the entire body at least once a week in 
warm, soft water-. Some should bathe oftener, depending largely upon 
the kind of labor and conditions under which they work. The feet 
should be bathed oftener. 

c. Study about the various kinds of baths and the use of each 
kind. Show pictures of public bathing places and discuss the neces- 
sity of them in villages and cities. 

d. Medicated soaps should, as a rule, not be used. 

e. Draw section of the skin and show sweat glands, nerves, dermis 
and epidermis. 

f. All diseases that are "catching" or are spread from one person 
to another are known as infectious. Any of them weaken the system 
and may be prevented. If this can be done in childhood, the person 
often becomes immune to them. The evil effects of childrens' diseases 
often last for years, or all through life. 

g. Teach about the diseases that enter the body through the skin. 
How do they enter? 

h. What are warts, carbuncles, blisters, corns, dandruff, ring- 
worm, measles and scarlet fever? 

9. Alimentary canal. The alimentary canal is a passage way of 
about thirty feet in length extending through the body. It se- 
cretes certain juices at different places which digest the food and 
kill injurious germs, but there are long folds in the intestines 
where these germs may grow causing typhoid fever, diarrhea and 
other intestinal diseases. The mouth should guard the remainder 
of the canal from these diseases and from unwholesome food. Much 
water should bo drunk, vegetables and fruits eaten and exercise 
taken in the open air at regular times or constipation may result. 
Many people are troubled vvith constipation as is shown by bad 
breath, headache, sallow complexion, and a general lowering of 
the vitality of the whole body. Often constipation is the cause of 
colds, and indirectly the cause of some of the most serious diseases. 
The undigested material should be removed from the canal at regu- 
lar times. 

10. Care and use of clothing 

a. What kinds of clothing keep the body v/arm? What kinds 
keep it cool? 

b. Where should clothing be hung in the home and in the school- 
house? 



HYGIENE, SANITATION, AND PHYSIOLOGY 241 

c. Discuss cleanliness of underclothing. Teach the necessity of 
removing- and properly airing it, as well as airing the regular clothing, 
every night. Some of the children may be in the habit of sleeping in 
the underclothing they wear during the day. 

d. Clothing will look better and wear longer if kept in shape by 
pressing, and proper hanging at night. Teach the pupils that their 
clothing should be free from holes and' protected from wear and dirt. 
"A stitch in time saves nine." 

11. Accidents and emergencies 

a. Discuss the different kinds of wounds of the skin and disin- 
fectants used in caring for them. Unclean wounds often lead to blood 
poisoning. 

b. Show how to place the different kinds of bandages, plasters, 
and slings upon the body. Every school should have a package of 
antiseptic cheesecloth for bandages and some boracic acid for disin- 
fecting purposes. 

c. Teach how to tie a square knot. 

d. What is an ambulance? 

e. Dwell upon the danger of air guns and cite accidents resulting 
from their use. Show^ how to carry a gun. 

f. Always carry knives and scissors closed. 

g. Children should not carry matches. Give illustrations of fires 
caused by match carriers. 

h. Never touch a poison. Let physicians handle it. Alcohol is a 
poison. 

i. Give illustrations of poisoning through accident. 

j. Teach the common antidotes and how to administer them. 

k. If poisoned, always call a doctor. 

1. Discuss the class of accidents usually occurring on July 4th, 
and teach the necessity of a sane fourth, and also the growth of the 
idea over the country. • 

m. Teach what to do in case of fainting, freezing, drowning, sun 
strokes, broken bones, bleeding, etc. 

12. Habits of children. Habits of promptness, cheerful obedi- 
ence, politeness, respect for age and for those in authority should 
be cultivated. Good sitting, standing and walking positions should 
be encouraged by complimenting those practicing thorn as well as 
complimenting such positions to those not practicing them. Speak 
of good habits oftener than you do of bad habits. Tell the pupils 
of their strength and their accomplishments more than you do of 
their weaknesses and shortcomings. You cannot make strong in- 
dividuals by constant repression. Of course it is well to speak of 
such habits as gum chewing in public, sneezing in the wrong di- 
rection and without asking to be excused, spitting, etc., but always 
leave with the class impressions of those not so ill-mannered and 
rude. 

13. Sicltness 

a. Show the financial and social loss caused by sickness to the in- 
dividual, the community, and the state. About 42% or nearly half 
of those who die each year die of reasonably preventable diseases. 
The economic losses due to these deaths are at least a billion dollars. 
The losses in happiness, the evil effects of breaking up homes, and 
all such losses of a personal nature are beyond computation. About 
S, 000, 000 persons in the United States are constantly seriously ill. 



242 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



b. Study the public health movements in cities and in the coun- 
try. What is being done in your district? 

c. Communicable diseases are classified under three heads by the 
State Board of Health: 

(1) Those to be quarantined are 

(a) Diphtheria 

(b) Scarlet fever 

(c) Smallpox 

(d) Spinal meningitis 

(e) Infantile paralysis 

(f) Asiatic cholera and yellow fever 
(g") Tj^plius fever 

(h) Bubonic plague 

(2) Those to be placarded are 

(a) Typhoid fever 

(b) Measles 

(c) Whooping cough 

(d) Chicken pox 

(3) Those to be reported to the local health officer but not 

placarded are 
<'a) Mumps 

(b) Erysipelas 

(c) Tuberculosis 

(d) Trachoma 

(e) Ophthalmia neonatorum 

(f) Venereal diseases 

d. Placards 

(1) What is a placard? 

(2) Quarantine cards are always red with the disease printed 
in black letters. 

(3) The placard for diseases which need the placard only may 
be any color with the name of the disease printed on it. 

e. Disinfection 

(1) All buildings, including schoolhouses, should be disinfected 
after any contagious disease. Is it done in the homes of your district? 

(2) Has your schoolhouse been disinfected since the last con- 
tagious disease case in it? 

f. Write to the State Board of Health, Madison, Wis., for "Rules 
Relating to the Sanitary Care of Schools." 

14. Sanitary supplies for schools 

The following supplies are considered necessary m all schools: 

a. Sink or wash basin 

b. Soap 

c. Paper towels 

d. Looking glasses for both sexes 

e. Broom 

f. Sanitary floor brushes 

g. Mop. 

h. Ash pail 
i. Snow shovel 
j. Coal shovel 

k. Facilities for cleaning shoes at the entrance of the door 
1. Sweeping compound which should be kept in a damp place to 
prevent evaporation of oils 
m. Sanitary dust cloths 
n. Pencil sharpener 
o. Waste baskets 
p. Toilet paper 
q. Laundry stove for heating water 



HYGIENE, SANITATION, AND PHYSIOLOGY 243 



15. Sleep 

a. All children under twelve years of age should sleep ten hours, 
and all adults eight, or, better still, nine hours 

b. Lack of sufficient sleep produces a weakened condition of the 
body and often causes sickness. 

c. People should sleep in well ventilated rooms, on open porches, 
or out of doors, where the air is cool, moist, pure, and in motion. 
Houses should be constructed for out door sleeping and a warm dress- 
ing room provided near the sleeping porch where a person may pre- 
pare for bed and dress in the morning. 

d. What classes of people are likely not to get endugh sleep? 

16. Water 

a. The body needs much pure water. It washes out the system, 
cools it, and frees it from poisons. 

b. At least three pints of water should be drunk daily. 

c. "Water is found in all plants and is pure in them. Why? 

d. Drinking water may not be pure. Give causes of polluted 
water, show pictures illustrating it, and discuss local conditions where 
it may occur. 

e. Sanitary drinking fountains are necessary. Show cuts of foun- 
tains and how anyone should drink from a fountain. 

f. How can we make hard water soft and soft water hard? Why 
is it important to know how to do this? 

17. Air 

a. A given amount of cold air is heavier than the same amount of 
warm air, therefore, warm air is pushed up by the cold air in falling'. 
When there is a body of cold air and one of warm air in a room, the 
cold air falls and pushes up the warm air. Carbon dioxide is exhaled 
by all animals and when cold is heavier than warm air so is found at 
or near the floor of buildings. It is mixed with the cold air at the 
bottom of the room. 

b. Show how this heavy, impure air must be removed from rooms 
near the floor. It is the pure, warm air in the upper part of rooms 
that should not escape but be allowed to cool and drive the cold, im- 
pure air near the floor out of the room. This impure air passes out of 
the room at the floor into a flue or chimney, and the heated air is eas- 
ily pushed up by the heavier falling air in the room. 

c. Teach that the air in buildings is made impure by the germs 
thrown off by children who have colds, mumps, measles, and also 
from odors from breath, lack of bathing, dirty clothes, etc. This air 
must be removed to prevent the spread of disease and to permit the 
pure oxygen laden air to enter. Each student needs thirty cubic 
feet of fresh air per minute. 

d. Moisture must be added to the air in buildings in cold weather. 
Cold air upon entering a building is heated and expands so as to oc- 
cupy more space inside the building than it did outside, yet this larger 
space inside has only the same amount of water or moisture in it 
that was in the smaller space outside, therefore, water in the form of 
vapor must be added to make the air inside as moist as that outside. 
Show the device for doing this in your school, and how lack of mois- 
ture in air will cause furniture, the skin, and the mucuous membrane, 
to dry up. A dry skin or membrane causes colds, coughs, and a weak- 
ened system for the introduction of more serious diseases. There 
should be a large evaporating pan kept filled with water on every 
stove. 

e. Schools should own both a thermometer and a hygrometer. 
Teach the pupils how to read them and what is meant by the readings. 

f. Explain what is meant by a vacuum. 



244 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



g. Break a wornout electric light bulb in the presence of the 
pupils and explain the noise and why the glass is thrown as it is. 

h. What is thunder? Zigzag lightning is caused by the electric- 
ity taking the easiest path through the air. 

i. Put a little sawdust in a glass of water, heat the water and 
notice the movement of the sawdust as carried by the water. Hot and 
cold air move in the same way as hot and cold water. 

j. Flush the schoolroom with pure air by opening windows and 
doors at recess and noon. Free air is pure and stagnant air foul. 

18. Light 

a. Light should fall over the left shoulder because we are a right 
handed people. If it comes over the right shoulder, the right hand 
causes a shadow on the paper of the page where the eye falls in read- 
ing. 

b. The windows of school buildings should be on the left side and 
to the rear of pupils, the window sill above the level of the pupils' 
eyes when seated so that direct rays of sunlight will not be thrown 
in the face of the child, and the top of the window should extend well 
up to the ceiling. The window space should be one-flfth of the floor 
space of the building. Window curtains should not cover any part of 
the windows except to shut out the sun's rays when they fall on pu- 
pils' desks. 

c. Tubercular, as well as many other germs, die when subjected 
to the direct rays of the sun. 

d. Teach the germ destroying qualities of light, and why it is 
necessary to have some direct rays of light admitted into the school- 
house during some period of the day. 

19. Outbuildings and school grounds 

a. Poorly constructed and dilapidated outbuildings often induce 
pupils to deface them by carvings and obscene writings. Seldom will 
this be done if they are painted and kept clean. They should also 
be well lighted, the windows and door screened, and the entrance pro- 
tected from the view of school building. and road. 

b. The ground should contain at least two acres of land; be 
platted, graded, drained; walks to school building and outbuildings 
built; and trees, shrubs and flowers planted according to the design of 
someone who has given such matters more than ordinary thought — a 
landscape gardener if possible. It would be well to organize the peo- 
ple of the district in order that the above suggestions may be carried 
out. Many school grounds are rough and uneven. They should be 
level so children can run and play. 

20. Flics and mosquitoes 

a. Flies lay their eggs largely in manure piles and in old rubbish. 
The eggs hatch within twenty-four hours into maggots which develop 
into full grown flies in about ten days after the eggs were laid. The 
new fly lives about ten days and during this time lays a large quantity 
of eggs where it was hatched." It has been said that the fly is hatched 
in the manure pile, lunches in the garbage can, and dines in the house. 

b. Flies carry disease germs and fllth on their wings and hairy 
feet. They have no commercial value and should be killed. 

c. A better slogan than "Swat the fly" would be "Starve the fly." 
Discuss the time of year in which it is best to "swat" or "starve the 
fly." 

d. Show the necessity of destroying the breeding places of flies, 
and the necessity of the proper care of garbage. The hauling out of 
barnyard manure and the rubbish from the alleys prevents the mul- 
tiplying of flies. 



HYGIENE, SANITATION, AND PHYSIOLOGY 245 



e. Discuss the use of fly paper and fly traps. 

f. Mosquitoes breed on the surface of stagnant water. They live 
near bodies of water and in wet seasons many more are found than in 
dry seasons. They,, like flies, carry disease germs. The mosquito, 
however, carries them in its system by sucking- the blood from a dis- 
eased individual and injecting it into the healthy person. What ones 
cause malaria? What yellow fever? Mosquitoes are dangerous and 
an annoyance to people living or camping near water. 

21. Care of animals 

a. Animals need light, heat, ventilation and other healthful and 
sanitary conditions as well as people. 

b. What are the common contagious diseases of horses, cattle, 
hogs, sheep and chickens? 

c. Discuss any diseases common in the district. 

d. Why are barns, hen houses, and other farm buildings venti- 
lated and disinfected? 

e. Visit all ventilated barns in your district with the larger pu- 
pils and study the system of ventilation. 

f. Why do some people whitewash barns? How is it done? 

g. Are cows in the barns of your district kept clean? 
h. Discuss the necessity of washing the cow's udders. 

i. Is there tubercular trouble in any of the cattle, hogs, or any 
of the other animals in the district? How do you know? 

j. Name the sanitary precautions taken in the best dairy barns. 

k. Is it a common practice for people to wash their hands before 
milking, and milk in clean clothes? 

1. What kind of a pail is considered most sanitary? 

m. Is a milking machine more sanitary than hand milking? 

n. Why can some cheese factories and condensed milk factories 
afford to hire men whose whole time is given in teaching people how 
to care for milk before it gets to the factory? 

o. Is pure water, balanced and healthful rations fed to the ani- 
loials in your district? 

p. How many farmers in the district belong to a cow testing as- 
sociation? Discuss its benefits to the farmer. 

q. Are the people trying to keep the cattle well by proper feed 
and drink, or do the animals, like people, suffer in winter from im- 
proper exposure and unbalanced rations, diseases due to herding them 
together, poor ventilation, etc.? 

r. Discuss the relation of the health of animals to that of human 
beings. 

s. What are the food products of animals? 

22. Care of plants 

a. Nearly all plants must be protected from plant and animal 
enemies. 

b. Fungus grawths destroy some plants and prevent others from 
bearing fruit. To kill the fungus and not hurt the tree or shrub, 
farmers spray the trees with a bordeaux or some other kind of mix- 
ture. The spraying must be done at certain times of the year and at 
different times for different trees and vegetables. 

c. What spraying mixture is used for the apple tree, the plum 
t-ee, and the cherry tree? 

d. What is tised for currant bushes, melon vines, and potatoes? 

e. Visit orchards and gardens, if possible, when they are being 
sprayed. 

f. Get cuts and pictures of spraying machines from seed dealers, 
also show fruit from trees sprayed as well as from those not sprayed. 



246 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



g. Some insects chew the leaves of plants and some suck the sap 
of the plant. The one is killed by a poisonous spraying- mixture at 
the time they are feeding, and the other is smothered by closing the 
air passages. 

h. How many farmers in your district spray their orchards and 
gardens, disinfect farm buildings, feed balanced rations to cattle, and 
have their cattle annually tested for tubercular and other contagious 
diseases ? 

i. Tabulate the common food products from plants in your dis- 
trict. Make another tabulation showing the plant foods eaten by 
you but grown in other countries. Estimate the financial loss to the 
farmers in your district because of plant diseases. 

PHYSIOLOGY 

1. Grade and text. Physiology is to be taught in the sixth grade 
from a modern textbook. The intermediate text of any series is sup- 
posed to be used and not what is known as the advanced book, 
which should be left for use in the high school. 

2. Class work. The class work should be made as concrete as 
possible and every effort made to clarify the pupil's thinking by the 
use of diagrams. Objective work should be made prominent. 
Parts of the lower animals should be brought by the pupils from 
their homes and studied. The text will guide the teacher as to 
what may be seen. 'Certain parts of the pig, sheep, calf, and 
chicken lend themselves to this work and may be kept pliable and 
free from decomposition for several days by placing them under 
water. 

3. Notebook. Every pupil should keep a notebook of drawings 
with explanations of them. The drawings should not be reproduc- 
tions of those in the text unless they are colored, and in this way 
riiade more intelligible to the pupils. Many of the drawings should 
connect parts of the different systems such as the digestive, circu- 
latory, and respiratory. 

4. Library lessons. Collateral reading from library books and 
pamphlets on health and sanitation should be made part of the re- 
quired course. In order to help make this feature effective teach, 
at the beginning of the school year, the following lessons as out- 
lined in the department publication Lessons on the School Library: 
"Useful Arts — Reference", p. 100; "Health and Sanitation", p. 101. 

5. Suggestions. Under each topic only enough questions have 
been asked to guide the teacher. Excellent questions will be found 
at the close of the chapters in some books. Drawings not sug- 
gested here may be required but the drawing should always show 
something more than the one from which it is copied. Some texts 
contain beautifully colored plates and a careful study of them is 
recommended. The objective work will add interest and will clar- 
ify the hazy ideas pupils often have as a result of textbook in- 
^tructiou alone. 



HYGIENE, SANITATION, AND PHYSIOLOGY 247 

6. Diseases. Discuss diseases common to the parts studied at 
the close of each general topic. The book will describe and name 
the disease attacking each organ. 

7. First month — Digestive system 

a. Name the parts of the alimentary canal and show on a dia- 
gram where each begins and ends. 

b. Discuss the glands found in it and the digestive purposes of the 
secretions. 

c. What is the use of saliva, gastric juice, bile, pancreatic juice 
and intestinal juice. 

d. The esophagus is a tube eight or nine inches long but is not 
open like the windpipe. Why is it not made like the windpipe? 

e. How does food pass from the mouth -to the esophagus? How 
down the esophagus? 

f. Watch the action of the esophagus of a horse when eating or 
drinking from the ground. 

g. Can a person drink or eat with his mouth lower than his 
stomach? 

h. What is the great use of the stomach? Study its shape and 
position in the body. 

i. The chief seat of digestion and absorption is in the small intes- 
tine. 

j. Notice the coecum, appendix, direction and size of the colon. 

k. Have the students distinguish clearly between mastication, di- 
gestion, absorption and assimilation. 

1. They should draw all the parts of the canal to a certain scale, 
except the intestines, coloring each part with crayola or chalk of a 
different color than adjoining parts. 

m. Draw^ on a large scale a villus showing epithelium, arteries, 
capillaries and lacteals, each part to be in a different color. 

n. Draw on each side of the villus the glands which form intes- 
tinal juice. 

o. Have the pupils bring from their homes the esophagus and a 
small piece of the stomach of a pig or some other animal, also bring 
the liver with the gall bladder, and the portion of the small intestine 
where the bile and pancreatic juice enter. 

p. Find the mucous and muscular tissues of the esophagus and 
intestine. 

q. Does the bile and pancreatic juice enter the intestines at the 
same place? 

1-. Why is a gall bladder needed? 

s. Show the mesentery. One of its uses is to fasten the intestines 
to the spinal column. 

t. What use is sometimes made by man of the small intestine of 
pigs? What of the stomach of cattle? 

u. Secure, if possible, some tripe from the butcher shop. 

V. Draw a cross section of a tooth, showing, in different colors, 
enamel, dentine, cement and pulp cavity. 

w. Secure a collection of teeth from a dentist showing parts of 
the tooth, decayed teeth, etc. 

X. Teeth may be broken from the jaw bone of the lower animals 
that have been slaughtered in order that pupils may see the coatings 
of the teeth and how they are imbedded in the bone. A careful ex- 
amination will show the nerve channel from the jaw bone to the pulp 
cavity of the teeth. 

8. Second month — Circulatory system 

a. The circulatory system cannot be understood by simply study- 
ing what any book prints. The cuts and drawings must be studied 



248 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



until the pupils understand what each teaches. In addition, there 
should be made at least the following- drawing's: 

(1) One of the general circulatory system, showing- the venous 
and arterial blood in colors and passing through the lungs, liver and 
kidneys. 

(2) Another showing- how the food passes from the capillaries 
to the cells, how oxygen reaches the cells, the path of carbon dioxide 
from the cell to the blood, and, in general, what refuse is carried 
away by the blood and what by the lymph. 

(3) Again the portal system should be drawn showing veins g-o- 
ing from intestines to the portal vein and from it to the liver. In the 
same drawing- show lacteals passing- to thoracic duct. 

(4) What food passes through the portal system? What food 
l.h rough the lacteals? 

b. The heart. It is practically impossible to understand the 
heart itself from drawings; in fact, to waste no time in the teach- 
ing of this system, the heart, arteries, and veins should be secured 
at the beginning of tlie study. Secure in some way the heart of 
a pig or sheep. Care should be exercised that the auricles are not 
removed and that a part of the large veins and arteries are at- 
tached. It is better to have the lungs attached also. 

(1) Have the pupils see the pericardium -and endocardium, dis- 
tinguish the auricles from the ventricle3, and notice the aorta, su- 
perior vena cava, etc. 

(2) Carefully open the heart and study the bicuspid, tricuspid 
and semilunar valves. Have the pupils find the two parts of the bi- 
cuspid and the three parts of the tricuspid. 

(3) Pour water into the heart in the direction of the blood 
flow and notice how it passes through it. Reverse the operation and 
notice how beutifully the valves are shov/n holding the water from 
passing back. 

(4) Observe the difierence in the thickness of the walls of the 
two ventricles of the heart and how thin the walls are at the apex of 
ic. 

(5) What part of the heart strikes the body wall? 

(6) Have students And the semilunar valves in the aorta and 
study their action. 

(7) Show what happens when the valves of the heart leak. 
What happens when the heart skips a beat? 

(8) Notice how much thicker the walls of an artery are than 
those of a vein. Why is it so? 

(9) Are arteries or veins nearer the surface of the body? 

c. The blood 

(1) Of what is blood composed? 

(2) What is the work of each constituent of the blood? 

(3) Mention at least three specific places whei-e the white cor- 
puscles work. 

d. The lymi)hatic system is really a part of the circulatory sys- 
tem. It is the sewage system of the body. The lymphatics are 
small tubes in A^^hich are carried the refuse matter from the blood 
and the decayed cells. Most of these tubes finally unite to form 
the thoracic duct. This duct carries the lymph to the heart. The 
fat, which is absorbed by the villi of the intestines, passes through 
the lacteals and into the thoracic duct, uniting here with the lymph. 



HYGIENE, SANITATION, AND PHYSIOLOGY 249 

The lymph is purified in passing through lymph nodes. The 
node filters the poisons from the lymph. When it fails to flow as 
fast as it should and collects in the lymphatics, a person has 
dropsy. 

Of what is the lymph composed and where does it go? 

What forces the lymph along? 

9. Tliird month — Respii'atory system 

a. The respiratory system consists of the nasal passages, pharynx, 
larynx, trachea, lungs, and tissue cells. Have the pupils di^aw a longi- 
tudinal section of these parts in colors, showing the relative shape 
and length of each, 

b. Study the relation of the eustachian tube to the pharynx. 

c. In the study of the larynx, have each pupil place his index 
finger on the upper end and his thumb on the iov/er end of his larynx. 

d. Adenoids tend to close the air passages and should be removed. 

e. Tissue or true respiration consists in the giving up of oxygen by 
the blood to the cells and the receiving of carbon dioxde by the blood 
froin the cells. 

f. What causes air to pass into the lungs? Does it rush in and 
cause the lungs to enlarge or does the lung cavity enlarge and the air 
go into the partial vacuum? In other words, is air drav\^n or pushed 
into the lungs? 

g. What is the cause of our breathing faster after vigorously ex- 
ercising? 

h. Secure the larynx, trachea, lungs and heart of an animal all in 
one mass. Study the epiglottis, glottis, vocal cords, cartilaginous rings 
of trachea, bronchial tubes, the nearness of the heart to the lungs and 
the arteries going to the lungs. 

i. Show the pupils where the artery breaks up into capillaries 
in the lungs and where the capillaries unite to form the vein return- 
ing to the heart. 

j. Find the prominence called Adam's apple. Why was it so 
named? 

k. With a piece of rubber tubing or large straw, inflate the lungs 
and notice the size of the air sacs. 

1. A piece of lung placed in water will float. Why? 

10. Fourth month — Puidfymg organs. The puiifyi}ig organs are 
the lungs and intestines, which have been studied, the skin, liver 
and kidneys. While these organs have other functions than that 
of throwing off waste and poisonous matters the principal function 
is the freeing of the body from its poisons and refuse material. 
Different kinds of poisons are accumulating all the time in the body 
and require different organs to carry them out of it. 

a. Have the pupils produce a colored drawing showing the rela- 
tions of the kidneys to the ureters, bladder, aorta, inferior vena cava, 
renal arteries and veins. 

b. A sectional vievv^ drawing showing pyramids^ pelvis, ureter, 
capsule and tubules should be produced to show the action of the kid- 
ney. 

c. When the skin is studied, a large cross section drawing show- 
ing its different structures such as dermis, epidermis, hair, muscle con- 
trolling it, arteries, veins, sweat glands, etc., should be shown. 

d. Study the epidermis on the hands of children. If the hands 
rre chapped or rough, pieces of epidermis may be picked off them. 



250 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



e. A blister consists in separating the epidermis from, the dermis. 
A callous is a thickening of the epidermis, and the nail is a modified 
form of it. 

f. Have pupils bring a kidney and piece of liver to school. Not 
much can be seen in the liver as all cells look alike. Find the ureter, 
pelvis, and pyramids in the kidney. 

g. What are the main poisons separated from the body by each 
excretory organ? 

When any of the above organs are clogged or fail to work, the 
others take over their work. This, however, is not true in the 
case of the liver. People can live without a stomach, about 50,000 
in the United States are living with only one kidney, many have 
had large pieces of the intestines removed, but no one can live 
without the liver. Its work is varied and no other organ can do it. 
It is important that all excretory organs or those engaged in sep- 
arating and removing poisons be kept in the best of condition. 

11. Fiftli month — Nervous system. The nervous system consists of 
the brain and spinal cord, the nerves and the sympathetic system sit- 
uated chiefly in the body cavity. 

a. Have the pupils draw a side view of the brain, showing, in col- 
ors, the different parts of the brain. On another drawing show the 
function of each part of the cerebrum. 

b. Injury to what part of the brain would cause instant death? 

c. Make a diagram showing what happens in reflex action. 

d. The brain and a part of the spinal cord should be secured. 
Study the texture of the brain. Observe the white and gray matter. 

e. Are brains used for food? 

f. Secure four or five vertebra and notice where the nerves leave 
them. Observe the ganglia. 

g. Find the white nerves in a piece of meat, 
h. Where do the sensory nerves end? 

i. Where do the motory nerves end. 
j. What is the cause of paralysis? 
k. What is apoplexy? 

The nervous system may be overworked and weakened by exces- 
sive study, excitement at entertainments, lack of sleep, the bully- 
ing of large boys, stimulants, and other things that produce fear, 
anger, and worry. The nervous system is also exhausted by too 
many and too vivid impressions being made upon the brain. It 
is strengthened by outdoor exercise, cheerfulness, contentment, and 
rest. 

12. Sixth month — Special senses 

a. The special senses are sight, hearing, taste, smell, pressure and 
temperature. Draw a cross section of the skin showing the nerve end- 
ings for temperature, pressure and pain. 

b. Draw a horizontal section through the eye, coloring and nam- 
ing each part. 

c. Explain the action of light in passing through a convex lens. 
A concave lens. 

d. When is a person far sighted and what kind of a glass corrects 
the ailment? 

e. When is a person short sighted and what kind of a glass is 
needed? 



HYGIENE, SANITATION, AND PHYSIOLOGY 251 

f. Draw a cross section of the ear, coloring and naming each part. 

g. What is the use of the ear wax? 
h. What may cause deafness? 

i. Test the hearing of pupily by placing a ticking watch at various 
distances from the ear. Do not let pupils see the watch or know from 
what direction the ear is approached. Which ear can you bring the 
watch nearer before it is heard? Why? 

j. Are all external parts of the body equally sensitive? 

k. Why do we not feel the food going down the esophagus? 

1. Which ones of the special senses do we educate most? 

m. All cooks should have the senses of taste and smell highly de- 
veloped. Is it desirable that these senses should be highly educated 
in everybody? 

n. What would happen if we had no pressure and temperature 
senses? 

13. Seventh month — Bones and muscles. 

a. Name the bones of an adult. 

b. Study the composition and parts of a bone. 

c. Secure bones of animals recently killed. Notice the periosteum 
and the places where the ligaments are attached. Study the color 
and find holes in them where blood vessels enter. 

d. Put a long slender bone such as a pig's or sheep's rib in some 
diluted muriatic acid until the mineral matter has been taken out and 
then tie it in a knot. Place an egg in the same acid until the mineral 
matter is removed from the egg shell. 

e. If possible, secure a bone which has been fractured and notice 
how nature healed the bone. 

f. Why is the breast bone of a chicken usually crooked? 

g. Secure a joint and after all muscle has been removed, pry the 
two bones forming it apart. The ligaments are holding it togetne:,. 
Find them. Notice the sticky, synovial fluid in the joint. 

h. Secure the leg of a chicken and separate the muscles. Notice ' 
the tendons and the difference between a tendon and a ligament. Ob- 
serve the connective tissue and notice how the muscle is attached to 
the tendon and the tendon to the bone. 

i. Have the pupils work their fingers and notice the movement of 
the tendons on the front of the wrist. 

j. There are three kinds of muscles — the striated, nonstriated and' 
heart. Secure a piece of common muscle, a piece of the esophagus 
and a piece of a heart, which represent respectively the three muscles. 
Study the texture and work of each kind. 

14. Eighth month — Miscellaneous work. The last month should 
be devoted to the discussion of such topics as the following: 

Prevention of diseases 

Accidents 

Ventilation 

Food and drink 

Stimulants and narcotics 

Secure pamphlets from the State Board of Health, Madison, Wis., 
and other sources that deal with the above topics more in detail, and 
give more recent information than can be gotten in the average text. 
The whole subject should now be reviewed in a large way. Connect oi 
knit together the great systems so that the students may see the de- 
pendence of one upon the other. Review the work of the health move- 
ments of the country and those in your county and district. Also re- 



252 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

view the more important part of the work on hygiene as given in this 
outline. 



III. TESTS FOR GRADUATION 

1. Pupils should be able to discuss intelligently the working of any 
of the great systems. 

2. They should be able to produce from memory the drawings in their 
notebooks. 

3. They should have read at least two small books on sanitation and 
be familiar with all books on sanitation in the library. 

4. They should know the general rules of health and how to apply 
them to themselves and the community. 

5. They should know the need of pure air for a sleeping room, the 
movement for sleeping porches on houses and that pure air is a large 
factor in the cure of many diseases. 

6. They should know the laws of Wisconsin about the sale of intoxi- 
cating liquors to minors, the use of tobacco and the rules of the State 
Board of Health relating to the sanitary care of schools. 

7. They should understand the importance of cooperation in prevent- 
ing the spread of contagious diseases and in lengthening the average 
life of man. 

8. They should have formed the habit of the proper care of their 
bodies and of an active community interest in health problems, 

9. They should know the effect of tobacco and alcohol on the body 
and mind, and the financial, social and moral loss to the community by 
their use. 

10. They should be able to name ten of the great physical and moral 
handicaps in life. 

Note. — More important than anything else is the development 
and fixation in the pupils of hygienic habits that will help to keep them 
in good health. 



HYGIENE, SANITATION, AND PHYSIOLOGY 253 



IV. REFERENCES 

1. References for pupils 

Conn & Buddington. Elementary physiology and hygiene. 

Silver. 
Eadie. Physiology and hygiene for young people. Scribner. 
Hutchinson. The child's day.( (T) 
Jewett. The Gulick hygiene series. (T) 
O'Sliea & Kellogg. Making the most of life. (T) 
Overton. Applied intermediate physiology. Amer. Bk. Co. 
Ritchie. Primer of physiology. (T) 
Ritchie. Primer of sanitation. (T) 

2. References for teachers 

Blaisdell. Practical physiology. Ginn. 
Coleman. The people's health. Macmillan. 

Conn & Buddington. Advanced physiology and hygiene. Sil- 
ver. 

Davison. Human body and health. Amer. Bk. Co. 
Great white plague. Issued by the State Superintendent, Madi- 
son, Wis. 
Hutchinson. Handbook of health. Houghton. 
Overton. Applied physiology. Advanced. Amer, Bk. Co. 
Terman. The teacher's health (T) 
Walters. Physiology and hygiene. Heath. 
Watt. Open air. Little Chronicle Co., Chicago. 



254 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



HISTORY 



I. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 

1. Attitude of pupils toward tlie subject. Though the teaching 
of history should result in the acquisition of knowledge, yet the facts 
learned are not so important as the attitude the pupil develops toward 
the subject. The foremost aim that the teacher should have in mind 
in teaching history is to get the children to like the subject. It is a 
sad commentary upon much of our teaching that children leave our 
schools with a dislike for some of the subjects that should be foremost 
in building character and in furnishing material for mental growth 
in leisure hours. 

2. Relation to other subjects. History is closely related to the 
other school subjects and in the teaching this relation should be shown. 
Geographical facts that have a bearing upon historic events should be 
taught or reviewed when these events are studied. Songs, ballads, 
poems and other forms of literature that commemorate or describe 
historic deeds should be brought to the attention of the class at the 
appropriate time. Besides, this inter-relation of subjects adds in- 
terest to the work. 

3. Concrete teaching. Other studies, such as arithmetic and 
geography, are greatly vitalized by the use of concrete material in 
teaching. Children make actual measurements and work problems 
based upon data secured. The geography of the immediate neighbor- 
hood is studied, and objects of various kinds are brought into the 
schoolroom to give the children clear ideas of the things they study 
in books. In history we have also material which aids in giving chil- 
dren clear ideas. As far as possible make use of the following: 

a. Anecdotes and stories. Some historical characters seem very 
real to us because of some stories we have heard told of them. 

b. Pictures in textbooks, reference books, and library books. Also 
special pictures which may be obtained from publishing houses. 

c. Good descriptions aid the imagination in picturing the condi- 
tions as they existed in the past. 

d. Maps and sketches help to show the relative location of places 
studied. The globe is especially valuable in teaching various phases of 
world history. 



HISTORY 255 

e. Relics are helpful in giving the children ideas of things that are 
now no longer found in common use. A visit to a museum is very 
helpful. Occasionally it is possible to secure such material for the 
use of the school. 

f. The old settlers in the community can give information regard- 
ing conditions in the early days. Sometimes it is possible to get these 
persons to give talks to the pupils. At any rate the teacher and pupils 
can get much interesting and valuable information by asking them 
questions. 

g. Source material. On the township library list are books con- 
taining "source material," such as letters and extracts from newspa- 
pers and books written long ago. 

The use of the above material helps to make history real to the chil- 
dren. Too often the study of history is merely the learning of dry facts 
from a texttook. Unless the study can be made vital it is of little valuo. 

4. Textbooks. The books used by the children up to the seventh 
grade should be biographical in their nature, or should be of the 
story type. Just as a pupil should have had the opportunity to be- 
come acquainted with a large number of plants before he begins to 
study the science of botany, so he should become acquainted with 
a large number of the world's men and women before he begins the 
study of organized history. The men and women selected for study 
must appeal to the children and care should be exercised not to in- 
troduce biographical phases beyond the children's comprehension. 

In the upper grades a regular history textbook needs to be used 
as a basis for the study. It should not, however, be followed sla- 
vishly. The purpose should not be to master any one text, but 
rather to train the pupils to study and use history books. 

Training institutions should lay emphasis upon familiarizing the 
students with the best texts and their proper use. Too often the 
teacher does not know the plan of the author. 

5. School library. One of the objects of the history work in 
school should be to teach the proper use of the school library. A 
fair mastery of the textbook is necessary in the upper class, but 
we should remember that the more we can get the pupils to look 
up historical information for themselves from various books or 
sources the more successful is our history teaching. 

Before the school opens, the teacher should look over the library 
to ascertain what historical books are at the disposal of the pupils. 
Whenever a history exercise can be profitably enriched by bringing 
in material found outside of the textbook, the opportunity should 
be utilized. Some of the children may be asked to tell these sto- 
ries, or, if they are short and simple, the stories may be read in 
the class. Some of the history material makes excellent supple- 
mentary reading. 

In the bulletin Lessons on the Use of the School Library sugges- 
tions are given regarding the use of the library in connection with 
the study of history. See pages 20; 94-95; 112-119. 



25 6 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

6. Time. How much time can be given to the study of history* 
In a one-room country school the history work below the seventh 
grade is given in language or reading classes, in general exercises, 
or in the general reading of library books. In the upper class a 
year is about all that can be given for the regular study of his- 
tory, as there are so many other studies whose elements need to 
be taken up. The problem as to what history instruction shall be 
given in the advanced class of a one-room country school resolves 
itself into this proposition: What can with greatest profit be taught 
in eight months to children from twelve to fourteen years of age? 

In some country schools (and in graded schools) more time can be 
spent on history than in others. The difference, however, should 
be one of quantity rather than quality. The great essential things 
should be taught in all elementary schools but in some it is possi- 
ble to go into greater detail than in others. Those who have more 
time, however, should be careful not to waste it by dawdling or by 
introducing material beyond the children's comprehension. 

7. Teaching the children to study history is of greater importance 
than the mere impartation of knowledge. Since time is so limited 
in the country school, it is especially important that children should 
be trained to help themselves as much as possible. If the teacher 
succeeds in training the children to find, use, and organize historic 
material, the foundation has been laid for history study through 
life. 

a. In the lower classes the children should be trained in the 
art of story telling. This is one of the important phases of language 
work. (See pp. 68, 73.) 

b. With the power of story telling well developed in the lower 
grades and with a vast amount of historical material accumulated 
the pupil is able to enter upon the organization work in the upper 
class. Here the teacher should spend some of the time working with 
the pupils in the class organizing the material. With the great 
characters studied in the lower grades as a basis for the work, the 
class should now put into outline form the events and topics com- 
ing up in their regular history study. 

c. Pupils are much helped if the teacher, before taking up a 
topic or a period, gives them a bird's eye or panoramic view of that 
topic or period. This helps them to get in proper perspective the 
large and important events around which they can later group the 
details. 

d. The children should be trained to outline their work as they 
study. It is well for the pupils to have notebooks in which these 
outlines may be copied. Such outline books are also valuable for 
review purposes. 

e. The children should be trained in their study to make Intel- 
ligent use of the globe, maps, sketches and drawings. 



HISTORY 257 

f. Frequent summaries and reviews sliould be given in whicli 
the great essential events are emphasized and drilled upon. 

g. In studying the constitutional history in the upper class do 
not take up all the topics usually treated in the textbooks. Much 
of the political history given in some textbooks ought to be omitted 
with pupils in the elementary schools. Such study frequently de- 
generates into mere repetition of words of the book. "How to deal 
wisely with a few large topics of the constitutional period is the 
problem of the last part of the grammar school." — McMurry. 

h. The social and industrial phases of history should be em- 
phasized in the elementary school rather than the political. 

8. General exercises. There are many historical topics coming 
up during the year which may with profit be taken up with the 
whole school. Even the smaller children take interest in these ex- 
ercises and if they are well given they do much to give them a de- 
sire to study history. Current events, topics in connection with 
the great celebrations, and the presentation of some of the great 
characters in the world history are especially suitable for such ex- 
ercises. 

9. Drill exercise. The following device resembling a mental 
arithmetic exercise adds interest to the history work and is of some 
value for review purposes: 

Prepare a set of statements like the following, and as each state- 
ment is read let the pupil write the name of the person, the place, 
or the event described: 

a. While seeking for youth, the old Spaniard found death. 

b. At the bend of the river, like Gibraltar it stands. 

c. While others looked eastward, he looked to the west. 

d. With a string and a key he brought lightning to earth, 

e. On two islands he lived the life of an exile. 

f. That bell proclaimed liberty throughout the whole land. 

g. Over the ocean three vessels went sailing. 

h. A queer looking cheese-box was out in the bay. 

i. Such a ship on Lake Michigan had never been seen. 

j. The boy saw the giant lift the lid of the kettle. 

k. On a muddy road his cloak he spread. 

1. The ditch when dug joined lake with river. 

The exercise may be varied by having the pupils prepare state- 
ments and give them to the class. The device may also bs used as a 
game in the home. 

17— S. M. 



258 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

II. GOURSE OF STUDY 

First and Second Years 

The children of the first and second years constitute one group. 
The work outlined is to be used as material for the language class. 
(See p. 63.) 

"The object of a course in history for the first two grades is to 
give the child an impression of primitive life and an appreciation 
of the public holidays." — Report of the Committee of Eight. 

^In this class practically all the history stories will jDe told by the 
teacher and reproduced by the pupils. In preparation for telling, 
a story first read all available accounts of the topic, selecting such 
facts as are suited to the class. Next outline the facts in a logical 
way. Under each heading build up a mental picture of persons and 
.situations in the story. To make these pictures clear and vivid re- 
fer frequently to things that the pupils have seen or experienced. 
Use illustrations and sketches. Tell one unit of the story at a time, 
then stopping to see if the pupils grasp the ideas. Encourage them 
to ask questions and to suggest reasons and results. 

The most valuable feature of this work is the re-telling, or oral 
reproduction, of the story by the pupils. Insist upon good language, 
but not upon exact agreement of different pupils' stories in all de- 
tails. Avoid too much repetition so that pupils tire of it. Avoid 
interrupting a pupil who is telling a story except quietly to correct 
the language. Strive for lively presentation, adapting voice, face, 
and gesture to this end. Give free play to the imagination. En- 
courage originality in pupils' ideas and expression. 

If Holbrook's "Hiawatha Primer" and Fox's "Indian Primer" 
are in the library, they should be read by the second year pupils. 

1. Stories of Indian life. The simpler parts of the following out- 
line may be taken up with this class, leaving the more difficult por- 
tions until they get into the next class (third and fourth years). 

What was the condition of this country before the white people 
first came here? Who lived here then? Have the pupils tell what 
they have heard about the Indians. Are there any Indians in the 
locality now? If not, are there any Indians anywhere? 

How the Indians lived. The Indian home, the wigwam; how 
made, size, material, comfort. The papoose: how cared for, Indian 
boys and girls; games, what they were taught. The squaw: appear- 
ance, duties at home, in the field. Indian farming: clearing the 
land, crops raised, methods used. The warrior: appearance, decora- 
tions, tomahawk, war dance. The feast. Wampum, pottery, canoe, 
moccasins. Indian religion. Some Indian legends. The story of 
Hiawatha, 



HISTORY 259 

If possible make a collection of Indian relics to be kept perma- 
nently at the school. 

Suggestive construction work: drawing, cutting, and making wig- 
wam's, bow and arrows, figures of warrior, baskets, pottery, mats, 
etc. 

Arfe there any Indian mounds in the locality? If so, where? How 
large are they? What shape? Why do you suppose they were 
built? What tribe once lived (or lives now) in this locality? 
What noted chiefs lived in Wisconsin? 

It may be possible in some portions of the state to get accounts 
of Indians from the old settlers. Introduce local history whenever 
possible. ' 

2. Myths and hero stories. These will be used as the basis of 
language work. Care should be taken that these are not only good 
stories, but also good historically. Baldwin's "Fifty famous stories 
retold" and "Thirty more famous stories" contain excellent inaterial 
for this work. Look over the school library to see what material 
is available. 

3. Celebrations. To be given just preceding the anniversaries 
celebrated. This class may join the next class (third and fourth 
years) while a few of the simpler parts of those pupils' outline are 
being taken up. 

Thanksgiving; Christmas; Lincoln's birthday; Washington's 
birthday; Memorial Day; Fourth of July. 

Third and Fourth Years 

The same general method of procedure will be used in this class as 
in the first class except that the children are now able to do more 
reading. Besides reading for themselves easy books on history they 
may also read and tell to the class simple history stories from books 
of the library. Both the stories the teacher has already told and 
new ones will appeal to them if their interest is aroused. The 
teacher should, however, continue to tell most of the stories. The 
stories outlined for history work will be used as material in the 
language class. (See pp. 68, 69.) 

1. Stories of heroes. Continue the work begun in the previous 
class. Baldwin's two books and others like them may be used and 
the stories told in class. 

2. Indian life. See outline for previous class. Samoset and 
Squanto. (See below.) Pocahontas. 

3. Celebrations. For a few of the recitation periods this class 
and the primary class may meet together. The pupils in this group 
may, however, do more work and get more out of the exercises and 
for that reason they need also some class periods by themselves. 



260 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

Do not merely repeat the same facts (about Lincoln, for instance) 
in each class, but expand the topic if it is taken up a second or 
third time. 

"Public holidays should * * * receive the greatest consid- 
eration from the teacher. The entire outline of the second grade 
should be reproduced, not only in the third grade, but in every 
subsequent grade; for the spirit that prompts the city, the state 
or the nation to set aside a day of remembrance should find ex- 
pression in each grade". — Report of Committee of Eight. 

a. Thanksgiving. Siory of tiVe Pilgrims. Leaving England. 
Life in Holland. Off for America! The Mayflower. The landing. 
Plymouth Rock. Building of homes. Hardships. Samoset. 
Squanto. Massasoit. Miles Standish. Governor Bradford. John 
Alden and Priscilla. The first Thanksgiving. 

Show pupils' all available pictures. Possible construction work: 
log house, figures in costume, etc. 

b. Cliristmas. In preparation for the Christmas celebration 
and the story of the 'Christ child, several stories of Hebrew heroes 
may be told: Abraham's wanderings, the story of Joseph, the story 
of Moses, and the story of David. 

Bring out the pastoral life of the ancient Hebrews; the great 
cities, pyramids and the temples of Egypt; the customs that differ 
from ours. 

c. Lincoln's birthday. Story of Lincoln. First home. An- 
cestors. Moving to Indiana. The log cabin. Abe's mother. His 
work, education, reading. Incidents of his boyhood and young 
manhood. Trip to New Orleans, Illinois. Studying to be a law- 
yer. Made president. His appearance. The great war. His death 
and character. The great Avork of Lincoln: Saving the Union; 
abolishing slavery. 

Suggestive constructive work: Log cabin, raft, flat boat, 

d. Washington's birthday. Washington's boyhood home, the 
large plantation, crops, house (compare Lincoln's boyhood sur- 
roundings.) Stories of his boyhood, his schooling, his plan for go- 
in^ to sea. Surveyor, life in the woods. His brother's dear.h. Mt. 
Vernon. Carrying a leUer to the French. France an 1 England 
at war. Braddock. The Revolution. Made president. The great 
work of Washington: Helping to gain independence; helping to 
start the government. 

e. Memorial Day. Associate this celebration with the Story of 
Lincoln. Use the Memorial Day annuals. The story of the Civil 
War may be grouped about the life of Grant. Grant's boyhood, 
education at West Point. Slavery. Secession. Call for troops. 
The army. The soldier's life. Great generals: Grant, Sherman, 
Lee. End of war. Death of Lincoln. Meaning of Memorial Day. 
What great work did the soldiers do for the country? 



HISTORY 261 

f. Flag day. Story of the flag. See Memorial Day annual for 
1916. 

g. Fourtli of July. Discussion may be taken up anytime dur- 
ing the year. Associate with story of Washington great men who 
were present when Declaration was passed: Jefferson (who wrote 
it), Hancock and Franklin. See their signatures. Washington 
himself was not present; he had been chosen commander and had 
left for the army. Stoiy of Jefferson. 

4. Biographical stories (See pp. 48-49). 

a. The story of Columbvis. As the story is told place outline on 
board before pupils to aid them in re-telling- it. Select portions of his 
life that appeal especially to children of this age. Make the story 
graphic and vivid. Read to the pupils Joaquin Miller's poem, "Behind 
him lay the gray Azores." 

h. The story of Raleigh. Queen Elizabeth, settlement in America, 
potato, tobacco. 

c. John Smith. First settlers in Virginia. Kind of people. Hard- 
ships. Smith's good work. Pocahontas. 

d. The story of Nicolet, the first white man in Wisconsin. Condi- 
tion before whites came. Indians. Nicolet's boyhood in France. Life 
among the Indians. Stories of the West. The journey. Landing at 
Green Bay. Journey through Wisconsin. A tablet has been erected 
at Neenah in honor of Nicolet. 

e. The story of Marquette and Joliet 

f. The story of Franklin 

Fifth and Sixth Years 

The work outlined for this class extends over a period of two 
years and includes stories and characters from American history 
and from the history of the world. They need not be taken up in 
the order given, as chronology is of little importance at this stage. 
Some of the material suggested should be utilized for language 
work, some can be gotten in the reading class, but most of it 
should be used in connection with the general reading of library 
books. These two years should be "browsing years" for the chil- 
dren and they should read many simple books and thus become 
acquainted with a great number of characters. The less formal the 
history work can be made the more likely the children are to form 
a liking for history. Many children have formed an aversion and 
even a hatred to the study of history, largely because they were 
given material unsuited to them in the intermediate classes. (See 
pp. 39 and 73.) 

It is a serious mistake to force a child into the study of formal 
history too early. Both country and city schools err in this respect. 
The history books that children use while they are in these grades 
should not be the ordinary textbooks. (See p. 255.) 

It should not be understood from what has been said above that 
the history work of this class should be slighted or neglected. The 
work that can be done in the eighth igrade depends upon the foun- 
dation that has been laid in the previous grades. The children 



262 (MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

should be guided in their reading. There should be discussion in 
the reading and language classes on the books and parts of books 
read. Short stories and anecdotes should be told to the class or 
to the whole school so that the great characters of history may be- 
come real in the minds of the children. Encourage children to 
report interesting accounts of historic characters. This concrete 
material of history creates -interest in the subject and develops a 
liking for the study. The stories and characters with which the 
children should become acquainted to some extent during these two 
years are the following: 

How America got its name 

Discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Balboa 

The search for the "Fountain of Youth" by Ponce de Leon 

Conquest of Mexico by Cortez 

The voyage of Magellan 

Discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto 

John Cabot, the Italian who worked for England 

Drake, Queen Elizabeth's sailor 

Raleigh, Queen Elizabeth's favorite courtier 

Hudson, the first white man in New York 

Champlain, the founder of Quebec 

Penn, the wealthy Quaker 

King Philip ; 

Peter Stuyvesant, the last Dutch governor 

Braddock and the Indians 

James Wolfe, the hero of Quebec 

The Boston Tea Party (Hancock, Samuel Adams) 

Paul Revere's Ride and the Battle of Lexington 

Grandmother's story of the Bunker Hill Battle 

The Christmas Surprise at Trenton 

Valley Forge 

John Paul Jones 

Capture of Stony Point by Wayne 

Marion, the "Swamp Fox" 

George Rogers Clark, the hero of Vincennes 

Stories of Wisconsin Explorers — La Salle, Hennepin, DuLhut, etc. 

Different portions of the state will be interested in different men 

Daniel Boone, the pioneer of Kentucky 

The story of Lewis and Clark 

Whitney and the cotton gin 

Perry's victory on Lake Erie 

The story of the Star Spangled Banner 

Dolly Madison 

Fulton and his steamboat 

Jackson 

Morse and the telegraph 

The story of the reaper 

Black Hawk 

Why Wisconsin is called the "Badger State" 

Kit Carson 

Chief Oshkosh 

Slave catching (in Wisconsin) 

The Erie Canal (Clinton's big ditch) 

The Monitor and the Merrimac (The Yankee Cheesebox) 

Old Abe (The Wisconsin war eagle) 

The Atlantic cable ' 

Booker Washington 

Dewey, the hero of Manila 

The Panama Canal 



HISTORY 263 



Stories from other countries 

Tlie story of the pyramids 

The great Wall of China 

Croesus and Solon 

Leonidas and the Spartans 

Philip and Alexander '.-^ 

The capture of Troy (The wooden horse) ' : 

The Parthenon ' 

The Olympic games 

The story of Romulus 

Horatius at the bridge 

The story of Cincinnatus 

Julius Caesar ; 

Attila the Hun 

Joan of Arc, the girl soldier of Orleans' 

Alfred the Great 

The vikings 

Mohammed 

William Tell 

Robert Bruce 

Stories of knighthood 

The Crusades 

The story of Marco Polo 

The invention of printing 

Peter the Great, the ship carpenter of Saardam 

James Watt, the boy who watched the tea-kettle 

George Stephenson 

Napoleon 

David Livingstone and Stanley 

It is hardly to be expected that all the children will have read 
all the material given in the above list when they enter the seventh 
grade. At first sight the list may seem unreasonably long. Yet it 
is often surprising to note what children can read in two years' 
time if they are encouraged and stimulated in the work and guided 
in the selection of the material. There are possibly in the library 
from six to twenty books which have history stories dealing with 
the above topics. These should be in constant use. If a pupil 
reads one story each week, he will have read more than sixty stories 
at the end of the two years. Many of the stories given above are 
short and can be read in a short time. 

It will be noted that stories from other nations are included. These 
stories form a part of the world's inheritance from past times; the men 
represent the great and good qualities that arouse enthusiasm; the na- 
tions made great achievements that helped make the world what it is 
today. This history is the background and foundation of American 
history. Some knowledge of these topics is necessary as a basis for 
such general reading as intelligent people are expected to do. 

In taking up the stories bring out, wherever possible, the condition of 
the people and the country at the time of the story. 

It may be possible that history stories not included in the above list 
are available to the pupils. The teacher should be free to use such 
material and encourage the children to call attention to interesting his- 
tory stories which they may find in their reading at home. 



264 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

In this connection, see "History — General Reading," page 119, 
i^esson on the Use of the School Library. 

Seventh Year 

It is suggested that the study of civil government be taken up in the 
seventh year and the study of history in the eighth. During the seventh 
year the pupils may, as far as they have time, continue to read books 
suggested for the fifth and sixth grades. Scudder's "Life of Washing- 
ton" would be a good book for them to read both in connection with 
their study of the federal government and as a preparation for eighth 
grade history. Biographical stories and historical fiction make good 
reading in preparation for the advanced work in history. (See also 
list on p. 44.) 

Eighth Year 

Recitations. It is suggested that four lessons per v/eek be given 
during the year leaving the history period on Friday to be used as por- 
tion of the time needed for the "school society" mentioned in the civil 
government and language outlines. The programs of this society 
should contain some history material, such as telling stories, reporting 
on books, etc. It may even be possible to have debates occasionally. 

Library lessons.. During the early part of the school year, teach 
the following lessons as outlined in the department publication Lessons 
on the Use of the School Library; Biography — Reference, page 112; His- 
tory — Reference, page 117. Also act on the suggestions under Bio- 
graphy — General Reading, page 115, and History — General Reading, 
page 119, of the same publication. 

General history. Before taking up the study of American his- 
tory give the children, if possible, a bird's eye view of the world's his- 
try. With the birth of Christ as the great central historic event we 
reckon dates B. C. and A. D. What year have we now? When did the 
United States declare its independence? When did Columbus discover 
America? Name some great men that lived before the time of Colum- 
bus. Name some of the great nations. 

Draw a line on the board as shown below. Make a mark in the 
middle to designate the year of the birth of Christ and at different in- 
tervals indicate a few of the important events of history. 




HISTORY 265 

Lead the pupils to see that the history of the United States is a part 
of the history of the world. 

Look over the article (pp. 280-284) giving a brief survey of the 
world's history up to the time of Columbus. Have the pupils contri- 
bute all they can by naming historical characters they have read about 
in the lower classes. Arrange this material in outline form so that as 
a result the children will learn the great nations of the past and some 
of the things they contributed to civilization. Do not go into details; 
make the great characters and nations prominent. 

After presenting a panoramic view of the world's history up to the 
Modern Age make a brief study of the condition of the world at the time 
of Columbus. What were the principal nations? Europe's trade with 
Asia had been cut off when the Turks captured Constantinople in 1453. 
The products of the East consisted of gold, precious stones, spices, silks, 
and perfumes. Have pupils trace these trade routes on the globe or 
map. To find a route to India (or the East) was the great problem of 
the fifteenth century. 

What important inventions had recently been made and what hearing 
did they have upon progress? 

American history. The teacher should make a study of the gen- 
eral plan of the textbook and get the author's method of presentation. 
Read the preface and any suggestions the author has given regarding 
the use of the book and the teaching of the subject. Study the maps 
and pictures carefully. (Institutions training teachers should lay spe- 
cial stress upon training teachers in the use of textbooks.) 

Present to the pupils an outline showing the periods into which 
American history can be divided. The following is suggestive: 










I r 

1 500 



1^,00 



This scheme divides the history approximately by centuries. The 
first century is largely one of discovery with a few attempts at settle- 
ment. In the second, discovery and exploration continue, especially in 
the Mississippi Valley (including Wisconsin), but the century is pri- 
marily one in which permanent colonies are founded. All of the thir- 
teen colonies are established except Georgia. The struggle for suprem- 
acy characterizes the third century, resulting in the victory of England 
over France, and finally ending with the establishment of American 
independence. Our constitutional period covers a century and a quar- 
ter. 

What part of the textbook deals with each period? 



266 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

1. Period of Discovery. Classify the following according to the 
countries which they represented: Columbus, Cabot, Ponce de Leon, 
Balboa, Cortez, Magellan, DeSoto, Drake, Raleigh, Hudson, Champlain. 
What did each do? Trace routes on globe or map. As a result of these 
explorations what portions of America did the different nations claim? 

How did America get its name? Note the Spanish settlements at 
St. Augustine and Santa Fe. 

2. Period of settlement. The great nations explored the new 
world in the 16th century; in the 17th they founded their colonies 
which gnew until the conflict for supremacy came in the 18th. Where 
did the Spanish settle? The French? The English? The Dutch? Are 
any other nationalities mentioned? What people first came to Wiscon- 
sin? By what water way? Note the peculiar situation of Wisconsin 
with reference to accessibility. 

Make a list of the English colonies. By what class of people was each 
of the following settled: Massachusetts, Virginia, Maryland, Penn- 
sylvania, Carolina? In the study of the colonies let this question be the 
guide: Where did the settlers come from, who were they, and why did 
they come? Emphasize the fact that they brought with them ideas and 
customs from the old country. 

Compare Virginia and Massachusetts as types of the northern and 
southern colonies. In each of the two colonies find out what the book 
says about the purpose of settlement; the character of settlers; the 
occupation of settlers; the size of farms; the ideas regarding educa- 
tion; the principal religion; the growth of slavery. 

Rhode Island and Connecticut were settled largely, from Massachu- 
setts. 

Lay great stress upon why the people left Europe and came to this 
country. Have the pupils search the textbook for reasons. Lead them 
to see that the colonial history is closely bound up in European history 
and that It is impossible to understand American history fully unless 
we know something of what happened in the mother countries. 

Queen Elizabeth died in 1603. She was followed by James I in whose 
reign "Jamestown" and Plymouth colonies were commenced. In 1625 
Charles I became king. His rule was very oppressive to the Puritans" 
who emigrated in large numbers. Hence New England grew very rap- 
idly up to about 1642 when Civil War broke out in England resulting 
in the victory of the Puritans with Cromwell as their leader. Then 
came an emigration of Cavaliers or Royalists to Virginia. For that rea- 
son Virginia grew very rapidly up to the time when Charles II wasi 
called to the throne in 1660. With the Cavaliers in power again, a large 
number of Puritans and people of other denominations came to the new 
country and the result was a large increase in the population of the col- 
onies during the last forty years of the century. 

Which one of the thirteen colonies had not been founded by 1700? 
Name the colonies in order from New Hampshire to South Carolina. 

Quebec was the center of French operations. Champlain was th^ 



HISTORY 267 

founder. Few settlements were found in the region of the Great 
Lakes, but several trading posts and mission stations were established 
among which were La Pointe (1665) and De Pere (1669) in our own 
state. 

The Dutch colony was taken by the English with very little trouble. 
Why? 

Host textbooks have chapters dealing with the Indians and with co- 
lonial life. Discuss them with the class. Have the pupils imagine 
conditions as they existed in those early days. 

By the end of the century the English had founded twelve colonies on 
the Atlantic slope; the French had explored the St. Lawrence and the 
Mississippi rivers and the Great Lakes and commenced the establish- 
ment of mission stations and trading posts; the Spaniards held Florida, 
Mexico and the West Indies; the Dutch had lost their colony of New 
Amsterdam. In the next century the lEnglish crossed the mountains 
where they met the French who claimed the same territory. The re- 
sult was the French and Indian War. 

3. The period of conflict 

a. The conflict between the English and the French for supremacy in 
America. 

(1) The English settlements in 1750. 

(2) The French settlements in 1750. 

(3) Washington's mission to the French. 

(4) The objective points. Locate on the map: Louisburg, Que- 
bec, Ticonderoga and Crown Point, Fort Niagara, and Fort Du Quesne. 

(5) Braddock's defeat. Wisconsin Indians under Langlade 
participated in this skirmish. 

(6) Capture of Quebec. Describe the city. 

(7) Effect of the war. Have pupils be able to trace the bounda- 
ries of the French and the English territory as defined by the treaty of 
1763. Call attention of the training of American soldiers for the Revo- 
lution. 

b. The conflict between England and her colonies. The Revolution. 

Do not go into detail regarding the causes of the Revolution by study- 
ing all the different acts passed by England. In general it was a ques- 
tion of taxes. Great Britain needed money to pay the debts incurred 
by the war which had been carried on not only in America but in India. 
She had won in both places and very likely felt a sense of power. She 
argued also that the colonists ought to pay part of this debt, while the 
colonists felt they should not. Divide the class into two groups, one to 
bring out arguments for the British, the other for the American side. 
Perhaps the most important factor was that the government of England 
could not appreciate the situation in America. The hardships of pio- 
neer life had developed in the colonists independence of thought and 
action. They had become resourceful. The attitude of England was 
to regard the colonists as "^'subjects" rather than as Englishmen and 
consequently to treat them as such. 



268 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

What did the colonies do in the way of uniting? What did they do 
to prepare for defense? Note the following preliminary events: (a) 
Boston Massacre, (b) 'Boston Tea Party, (c) Boston punished, 
(d) Congress of 1774. (e) Paul Revere's Ride: Lexington and Con- 
cord, (f) Congress of 1775. (g) Washington made commander-in- 
chief, (h) Bunker Hill, (i) Declaration of Independence. 

Study the military operations with Washington as the central charac- 
ter. He laid siege to Boston in 1776. He moved to New York, later to 
Philadelphia and finally to Yorktown. His campaign was carried on 
principally in and around the three large cities. Study the map. 

Three other campaigns should be noted: Burgoyne's campaign in 
northern New York for the purpose of cutting New England from the 
rest of the colonies; the campaign in the South under Greene and the 
partisan leaders; and George Rogers Clark's campaign in the North- 
west. The last named is of special interest to us in Wisconsin. 

Call attention of the battle of Saratoga as the turning point of the 
war. 

The part that John Paul Jones took in the war should be emphasized 
as should also that taken by Franklin in securing aid from foreign 
countries and Robert Morris in securing financial aid for the country. 

Make a list ,of the American leaders. The British leaders. Do not 
spend much time on the "critical period," unless the pupils have more 
than usual maturity. Much of the material usually given is too difficult 
for the children of this age, and should be left for the high school. In 
a general way call attention to the condition of the country and the 
need for the formation of a strong government. A government had 
been established under the Articles of Confederation but it was weak. 
A convention was called in 1787. See suggestions under Civics p. 261. 
The result was the Constitution. The ratification of the constitution. 
Two parties. Demonstration in New York City. Spend a few days re- 
viewing the United States government as outlined in the seventh 
grade. 

Another important event of 1787 was the passing of the "Ordinance" 
organizing the Northwest Territory. Have pupils trace boundar:e&. 
Note that part of Minnesota was in this territory, as well as all of Wis- 
consin. 

The portion of the outline given thus far should not take up more 
than one-third of the time given to the whole subject. At least two- 
thirds of the time allotted should be given to the constitutional period. 

4. Coiistitutional iieriod 

a. Place upon the board a diagram like the following showing the 
sub-periods into which the constitutional period may be divided. 



VO -i^a^ ^ C ■fvu^.CcU.M 3^ yjKULd - 9/uu*U.^jc: 



/.<M^ - 8' ^u_t v< ti :.i; 



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HISTORY 269 

These dates may be regarded as mile-stones in our history dividing 
it into periods. Our work shall be to learn about the most important 
persons living in each period, the great problems these persons helped 
to solve, and the great events and movements that influenced the coun- 
try. It shall be our purpose to select for study those characters, those 
events, and those movements that have had the greatest influence in 
shaping our history. 

Have the pupils master the outline. The reason for selecting 1829 
and 1898 as division points will be made clear later. 

b. Most textbooks give a chapter on the condition of the country in 
1790. Have the pupils read that chapter and discuss its contents. 
Add other information on the topic. Make use of pictures. Train 
Children to use the index in looking up topics both in textbooks and 
in reference books, 

c. In each period we shall take up for study the following- topics: 

(1) The presidents and other important leaders. 

(2) Territorial growth. 
New acqusitions. 
New states admitted. 

(3) Inventions and material improvements with the results they 
brought. 

(4) Increase and movements of population. 

(5) Great national questions. 

(6) Foreign relations. 

(7) Development of Wisconsin. 

Note. Teachers in training institutions should take up with the 
students Chapters 1 and 2 in _Cubberley's "Rural Life and Education". 
The four periods of agricultural development and the characteristics 
of each should be emphasized. Note that these four periods agree 
quite well with the periods suggested in the outline. 

d. The first period covers forty years. Note what pages in 
the textbook are given to this period. 

(1) Presidents and other leaders. Make a list of the presidents. 
How many served one term only? The two Adamses were from Mas- 
sachusetts, the others from Virginia. Were the Adamses related? 
Find out about the education of these six men; their occupation. 

Make a list of other great leaders besides the presidents, and state 
briefly why each one is important. Train pupils to glance through a 
portion of a book for information wanted. Some of this work usually 
needs to be done in the recitation and is one method of teaching chil- 
dren how to study. The result of this exercise (or study) will be a list 
of persons together with the important work each did: 

Hamilton, the man who worked out the money question; Whitney, 
the inventor of the cotton-gin; Napoleon, the great French general and 
emperor; Lewis and Clark (also Pike), western explorers; Fulton, the 
inventor of the steamboat; Perry, the hero of Lake Erie; Key, the 
author of the Star-Spangled Banner; Jackson, the Indian fighter and 
hero of Orleans; Harrison, the hero of Tippecanoe; Clay, Webster and 
Calhoun, three new leaders in Congress; Clinton, the digger of the '%ig 



270 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

ditch;" George Stephenson, the Englishman who invented the locomo- 
tive; John Stevens, the builder of the first steam locomotive in America. 

(2) Territorial expansion. Trace on the map the boundaries of 
the United States in 1789. Who were our neighbors? 

What additions to our territory were made during the forty years? 
Read the textbook accounts of each putchase and answer these ques- 
tions: Prom what country was the purchase made? Who was president 
at the time? Why did the other nation wish to sell? What reasons 
did the United States have for buying? What were the terms? 

Trace on the map the boundaries of each purchase. What states and 
parts of states are included in the purchase? 

How many states were there in 1789? Make a drawing of an arch 
and divide this into 13 sections, 6 on each side of the keystone. Each 
section represents a state, Pennsylvania being the "Keystone State." 
Be sure the pupils can name the thirteen states in order. 

Make a list of the states admitted to the Union during the 40 years. 
Arrange them in the order in which they were admitted, giving dates. 
This work will be referred to later. 

Compare the United States in 1789 and in 1829 in regard to area, num- 
ber of states, and neighbors. 

(3) Inventions and improvements. What important inventions 
were made during this period? Have pupils discuss the influence of 
each upon the development of the country. When had steam come to 
be used as power? Have some pupil read about James Watt and report 
to the class. 

Look through the textbook to find what great improvements were 
made (Erie Canal, National Road). Trace them on the map. How 
long is the Erie Canal? How wide was it made? How deep? Has it 
been improved in later years? What influence did these improvements 
have upon the development of the country? 

(4) Population. What was the population of the country in 
1790? In 1830? What was the increase and increase per cent? Look 
through the text and other books to determine if there had been much 
immigration from foreign countries during this period. Note what the 
book says about the westward migration during this period. What 
new factors facilitated this western travel? Why did people go west? 
Into what states did they go? Prom what states did they largely mi- 
grate? See again the list of states admitted and note the dates. Does 
your book say anything about the growth of cities? Had Chicago been 
started? 

(5) Great questions: 

(a) Providing money for the government. Who was the organi- 
zer of the financial system of the country? What position did he hold? 
Emphasize two ideas: All debts, including that of the States, sliould be 
paid in full; the money for the federal government was to be raised by 
indirect taxation. Explain duties and internal revenue. Omit the Na- 
tional Bank question. 



HISTORY 271 

(b) The slavery question: Review the compromises of the con- 
stitution regarding slavery. The ordinance of 1787. The effect of the 
cotton-gin. The Mason and Dixon line, (origin of the term) and the 
Ohio River became the boundary line between the free states and slave 
states. How many of the original states were north? South? Have 
the pupils arrange the states in two columns, north and south, in the 
order in which they were admitted, thus: 

North South 

New Hampshire Delaware 

Massachusetts Maryland, etc. 

Lead them to discover that the two sides are even. Was this an acci- 
dent orwas there a purpose back of it? (Balance of power In the Sen- 
ate). The admission of Missouri. By what people had Missouri been 
settled? What was the Compromise? 

(c) The question of whether the nation or the states should be 
supreme. Two parties. What is meant by strict constructionist and 
loose constructionist? 

(6) Our relations, to foreign nations. Who were our American 
neighbors in 1789? In 1829? Take up two topics only: The war of 
1812, and the Monroe Doctrine. In connection with the former touch 
upon European events, — the French Revolution, the rise of Napoleon, 
his military successes against other nations, the European war which 
brought in most of the nations, the battle of Waterloo (1815). It was 
in this conflict between England and France that the United States 
became involved, because of interference with American commerce. 
What was the embargo f Jefferson and Madison were both for peace 
but war was declared by Congress. Who were the "War Hawks" in Con- 
gress? In what part of the country was the war especially unpopular? 
Why? Omit all details about the war itself except five units: War 
about Lake Erie — Perry's victory; war on the ocean; attack on Balti- 
more and Washington; battle of New Orleans; treaty of Peace. 

What part of the new world had been settled and conquered by SpaiixV 
During this period nearly all of these colonies revolted and obtained 
their independence as we did in our Revolution. Other European coun- 
tries proposed to aid Spain to regain these colonies. Hence, the Mon- 
roe Doctrine. Teach that there was no thought of interference by Eu- 
ropean nations with the United States or her territory. What does 
the Monroe Doctrine mean today? 

(7) Wisconsin. French territory 1634 to 1763. English terri- 
tory 1763—1783. Treaty of 1783. Ordinance of 1787. No slavery. 
How many states had been carved out by 1829? What was the status 
of Wisconsin at that time? Had any portion of the state been settled? 
Had Milwaukee been founded? 

Have a general review of the first period. It is a good practice to 
have the pupils keep notebooks in which they preserve outlines of the 
topics as they study them. These outlines are also useful for review 
purposes. 



272 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



The following diagram illustrates how a few of the important facts 
of a period may be gathered together: 



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e. The second period covering 32 years. What part of your text- 
book deals with this period? If Wilson's "Division and Reunion" is 
found in the library read pp. 2-12. Some of the textbooks also call at- 
tention to the fact that a new era was introduced at this time. 

Call attention to the fact that it was in this period that many of our 
grandparents and great grandparents came to Wisconsin. Are there 
any of the pepole living in the district who can remember conditions 
in the 50's? 

(1) Make a list of the presidents. Which ones died in office? 
Who succeeded them? Which ones had two terms? How many were 
there in all? In what ways were these men quite different from the 
six in the first period? 

Make a list of the other leaders, following the form given in the first 
period. Do not make the list too large. Some of the noted literary 
characters as Lowell, Whittier, etc. should be included. 

(2) Territorial acquisitions. Make a list of them. Have some 
pupil look up and report on the history of Texas, the "Lone Star Slate." 
Why did Texas want to come into the Union? Was there any opposi- 
tion to receiving her? Why? The Mexican cession. The Gadsden 
purchase. Terms. In what way were the acquisitions of this period 
different from those of the preceding period? Have pupils trace boun- 
daries of each acquisition. What states and parts of states are included 
in each? Importance of these acquisitions. 

Take the table suggested on p. 233 above and add to it the states ad- 
mitted during this period. Notice the alternating order. How many 
states were there in 1829? In 1850? In 1861? Which number was 
Wisconsin? 

(3) Make a list of the inventions given in the textbook. The in- 
ventors should have a large place in history for the reason that through 
their work man is enabled to suMue nature and use her forces for his 
advancement. Morse discovered an application of electricity. Review 
Franklin's discovery. Emphasize especially the importance of the in- 



HISTORY 273 

ventions in farm machinery. What inventions had a bearing upon work 
in the home? 

Some important discoveries which affected greatly the development 
of the country mark this period: Gold, silver, petroleum. 

Does your textbook mention anything regarding improvements in 
transportation during this period? Where were railroads built? What 
is said about the growth of manufacturing? 

(4) Population. Make a table showing the census of the coun- 
try in 1830, 1840, 1850 and 1860. Note the increase. 

This is a great immigration period. When did the first settlers in 
your district arrive? From v/here did they come? Was there any 
special reason why they came at that time? 

Look through your textbook (and other books) to find an answer to 
the question why so many people came to. this country during this 
period. 

A fact that should be taught, especially in Wisconsin schools, is that 
large numbers of Germans came to this state from Germany as a result 
of the revolution of 1848. Many of these people were especially noted 
for their enterprise, as they were among the most progressive people in 
Germany. 

Other factors caused many people to leave Europe such as crop fail- 
ures and oppressive laws. 

What does your textbook say about the westward movement of popu- 
lation during this period? Note again the new territory acquired and 
the new states admitted. 

(5) Great questions 

(a) Financial questions. Simply refer to the Panics of 1837 
and 1857. Do not discuss the tariff bills except the one that brought up 
the nullification doctrine, (d) 

(b) Great change in the management of the government. 
Spoils system. 

(c) Slavery. Have pupils go through the text and note how 
this question grew in importance. The rise of the abolitionists, — Gar- 
rison. Anti-slavery literature, Mrs. Stowe, Whittier, Lowell, Phillips, 
Acquisition of slave territory. The balance of pov/er in the senate. 
The compromise of 1850. Kansas-Nebraska struggle. Dred Scott. 
John Brown. 

(d) Secession. The strict and Iccse ccnstruction:"sts after the 
constitution was adopted. Calhoun and the nullification. Jackson's 
attitude. Compromise of 1833. Revival of doctrine in 1860. 

(6) Other nations. Have pupils look through t'le text and 
make note of events. Emphasize the following: (a) England and the 
Oregon country. How was the trouble settled? What had been done 
by the United States in that country? Marcus Whitman, (b) Mexico. 
The Mexican War. Causes. Three campaigns (do not go into detail). 
Treaty, (c) Japan. Perry's visit (1854). The treaty. 

(7) Wisconsin. See Blue Book for population of Wisconsin in 
1840, 1850, 1860. Why is not population for 1830 given? Note the 



274 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

population by counties given in 1840. Why the great increase between 
1840 and 1850? When did the settlers begin to come into your locality? 
Of what different territories has Wisconsin been a part (Thwaites' 
"Story of Badger State," p. 156)? When was Wisconsin organized as 
a territory? What was the first capital? Why? Locate. How did 
Madison come to be the capital? When was Wisconsin admitted as a 
state? Who was the first Governor? Why was Wisconsin called "The 
Badger State '/^ 

Other topics of interest in Wisconsin history during this period: 
Black Hawk War. Slave catching in Wisconsin. Chief Oshkosh. Read 
with the class the article — "Our foreign-born citizens" in Stories of the 
Badger State, pp. 222-229 and point out on the map the different local- 
ities mentioned. 

Review the second period and also compare it with the first. Do the 
two stand out in contrast as Wilson suggests in the book referred to? 
Make statements showing why the year 1829 marks a change in our na- 
tional history. Have pupils copy these statements into their note- 
books. 

General suggestion and caution. It should be kept in mind contin- 
ually that the purpose in teaching history is not merely to have the 
pupils memorize facts, but to train them to study. Memory tests 
should be given only on such facts as are essential to the grasp of the 
large relations of the subject. Many tests should be given to ascertain 
the pupils' ability to find and to use historical information. Organize 
the material in outline form with the pupils as the work proceeds. In 
this way the great essentials will stand out and the relations of events 
be made clear. 

f. The third period. — Civil War. Four years. 

(1) Condition of the two sections. Look through the textbook 
to learn the conditions in the North and the South. What were the re- 
sources of each? How were the two sections prepared? 

(2) Beginnings. Work out with the pupils from the textbooks 
the following events in their order: a. Election of Lincoln, November, 
1860; b. secession of South Carolina in December; c. secession of six 
more states; the organization of the Confederate States of America, 
February, 1861. (Did the South adopt a constitution? What was the 
capital? Who were president and vice-president?) e. seizure of United 
States forts, arsenals and public buildings in seceded states; f. inaugu- 
ration of Lincoln March 4, (call attention to portions of the inaugural 
address) ; g. firing upon Fort Sumpter, April 12; h. Lincoln's call for 
75,000 troops, April 15; i. organization of the army; j. the secession of 
four more states; k. removal of the Confederate government to Rich- 
mond; 1. Bull Run. 

(3) Story of the war. Have some form of outline map of the 
United States before the pupils while the Civil War is being studied. 
A blackboard outline map is especially usable as places can be located 
with crayons, campaigns indicated, etc. Make use of maps, sketches 
and pictures found in the textbook. 



HISTORY 2? 5 

Note that the country is divided into two sections by the Appalachian 
Mountains. Hence there were two different regions in which fighting 
was carried on, — the East and the West. In the East the fighting took 
place between, and in the vicinity of, the two capitals, and was restricted 
to a comparatively small area. How far apart are Washington and Rich- 
mond? What kind of country between them? In the West the fighting 
took place principally along the rivers (Cumberland, Tennessee, Mis. 
sissippi) and in the vicinity of Chattanooga. Lead the pupils to see 
the importance of this town. 

Teach only the great military movements without going into details. 
Make the work interesting so that they will read books for themselves 
outside of class and school. The following outline is suggestive though 
it may need some modification depending upon the textbook in use; 

(a) Look through the textbook to find what plans the North 
and the South had after they realized that war was a certainty. As the 
campaigns progress note how these plans succeed or fail. 

(b) Where were the two great armies located at the opening 
of 1862? McClellan commanded in the East and Halleck in the West, 
though Grant was really the one who achieved results. 

(c) Grant took Fort Henry and Fort Donaldson and defeated the 
Confederates at Pittsburg Landing (Shiloh), thus opening up the two 
rivers. The Mississippi was opened up from the north as far as Vicks- 
burg and Farragut captured New Orleans from the south. This left 
Vicksburg (with Port Hudson) to be taken in 1863 and Grant was given 
the task of taking that stronghold. 

(d) In the East the campaign of 1862 was not so . successful. 
The northern army tried to take Richmond and really got within four 
miles of it but failed. Lee also marched toward Washington but was 
held back at Antietam. He -retreated. McClellan was superseded by 
Burnside who attacked Lee at Fredericksburg but lost. The command 
was then given to Hooker. The most important victory in the East 
during the year was the naval engagement between the Monitor and the 
Merrimac. 

(e) The Emancipation Proclamation. Just what did the issu- 
ing of the document mean? What was the effect upon Europe? Were 
all slaves freed by this act of the president? 

(f) The year 1863 turned the tide. Vicksburg surrendered July 
4 and Lee was turned back at Gettysburg. Lee had defeated Hooker at 
Chancellorsville and the southern army crossed the Mason and Dixon 
line hopeful of victory. Emphasize these two engagements. 

Campare Gettysburg with Saratoga. 

From Vicksburg Grant went to Chattanooga to take command, arriv- 
ing there in November. Under him were Sherman, Thomas, Hooker, 
and Rosecrans. He defeated the Confederates at Lookout Mountain 
and Missionary Ridge and thus opened the "gate" to the south. 

(g)In 1864 Grant was placed in command of the whole Union 
army and he himself went to Virginia while he left Sherman in charge 
in Georgia. He carried on a "Hammering Campaign" and continually 
drove Lee back toward Richmond, after which followed the siege. 



27 6 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

Sheridan defeated Early in the Shenandoah and Sherman went "march- 
ing through Georgia" thus cutting the South in two once more. Sup- 
plies were cut off from Lee's army. What is meant by "sixty miles in 
latitude, three hundred to the main?" When did Sherman reach 
Savannah? 

(h) Surrender of Lee to Grant at Appomattox. What were 
the terms? 

(i) Assassination of Lincoln. 

Have the pupils note the rise of Grant during the war. 

Ask the pupils to name what they consider the six most important 
engagements of the war. Let them justify their answers. 

Have the pupils find (see encyclopedia) which of the great generals 
had experience in the Mexican War. Had any served in the War of 
1812? 

(4) The Civil War Period according to the outline. 

(a) Glance through the textbook and make a list of the great 
leaders of this period. Include among them Ericsson, Greeley, Farra- 
gut, Stanton, and Seward. 

(b) Were there any new states added during this period? 
(Kansas, West Virginia, Nevada.) 

(c) What important invention was made? Effect upon naval 
warfare. 

Two important acts were passed during the war which had great in- 
fluence later on the development of the West. One was the Homestead 
act of 1862, and the other the granting of tracts of land and loaning 
money to the Pacific railroad company for the building of railways. 

(d) The topic regarding population needs no discussion in this 
period. 

(e) What great national questions were settled by the Civil 
War? What new questions arose? 1. Reconstruction: How should the 
seceding states be received back into the Union? 2. The negro prob- 
lem: What should be the status of the negro politically? What new 
responsibilities were now put upon the negro race? Were they ready 
for such fesponsibility? 3. Financial questions. How was money se- 
cured to run the war? How did the South get its money? The debt of 
the Southern states. (See Fourteenth Amendment.) 

(f) Look through the textbook to find the attitude of England 
toward the North and the South? What was the Trent affair? The 
Alabama case? Can you find anything relating to the attitude of 
France? Of Russia? 

What was the nature of the trouble in Mexico during this period? 
How was it settled? What bearing did it have upon the Monroe doc- 
trine? 

(g) Read the chapter entitled "Badgers in War Time" in 
"Stories of the Badger State." Look through the Memorial Day An- 
nual (1914) for the story of Governor Harvey and his wife Cordelia 
Harvey. Story of "Old Abe." What Wisconsin soldiers do you know 
who took part in the war? See also pp. 428-429, Blue Book of 191'5. 
What was the total number of soldiers furnished by Wisconsin? 



HISTORY 277 

g. The fourth period, — from the Civil War to the Spanish-American 
War, 1865-1898, 33 years. 

The time from the Civil War to the present may be studied as one 
period if the teacher prefers. The reason for dividing it into two 
periods is to emphasize the Spanish-American War which resulted in 
viaking the United States a loorld poiver. 

(1) The presidents and other leaders: Greeley, Field, Edison, 
Bell, Eads, Burbank, Babcock, J. J. Hill, Reed, H. M. Stanley, Booker 
Washington, Clara Barton, etc. Include prominent foreign characters: 
Queen Victoria, Gladstone, Bismarck, DeLesseps, Pasteur, Marconi, Liv- 
ingstone, Tolstoi, Diaz, etc. Have the pupils prepare the list. 

(2) Territorial acquisitions: Alaska; Hawaii; The Philippines; 
Porto Rico; Guam; Samoa. Location, area and population of each. 
How acquired. Terms. 

Make a list of the states admitted. What territories still remained 
in 1898? 

(3) Inventions. Look through the textbook to see what inven- 
tions are mentioned. Note the most important ones, those that have a 
special bearing upon national development. This may be called an age 
of electrical development just as the period before the war was a period 
of steam development. Make a list of the principal electrical inven- 
tions. 

What is given in the text (or library books) regarding agricultural 
developments? Improvements in farm machinery. What factors con- 
tributed? What is said about growth in manufacturing? What im- 
portant effect did this have? What improvements were made in trans- 
p'ortation facilities? Effect of Atlantic cable and Pacific railroad. 

Were there any important discoveries made during this period? 
What effect did they have? 

(4) Census of 1860, 1870, 1880, 1890 and 1900. Note growth. In 
which decade was the increase the most marked? Does your book men- 
tion anything about immigration? Did any of your friends come to 
this country during this period? Were there any special reasons for 
immigration? What states were settled? What about the growth of 
cities? Compare the size of Chicago at the time of the great fire in 
1871 and the World's Fair in 1893. 

(5) National pro;bflems 

(a) The reconstruction question. An elementary class may 
learn the following main facts in this period: (1) During and after the 
war the negroes were given their freedom. (2) They were ignorant 
and almost helpless; many became lazy and lawless. (3) The Southern 
States passed laws to control them. (4) Congress interfered to protect 
the negroes and caused the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to 
be adopted, making negroes citizens and voters. (5) In most Southern 
States the negroes and a few white men got control of the government 
and ruled most disgracefully, under the protection of the United States 
troops. (6) Southern white men tried to force them out of power by 
violence. (7) Finally, when the troops were withdrawn negro rule 



278 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

ended, and since then negroes have not been allowed to vote in the South. 
(8) Northerners are now satisfied to allow Southerners to settle their 
own negro problems. When were all the Southern States readmitted 
to the Union? 

(b) Financial difficulties. Panics of 1873 and 1893. Note that 
there were two great panics before the war and two after. In each 
period just twenty years intervened. 

(c) The negro problem. Booker Washington and his work. 

(d) Other problems. Have pupils look through the text and 
make note of problems mentioned. Call special attention to capital ana 
labor problems. 

(6) Foreign affairs. The Franco-Prussian War in 1871 resulted 
in the defeat of Napoleon III of France. The German states were or- 
ganized into the German Empire with William I as emperor. Why is 
this of interest to us? After a long period of internal dissention the 
states of Italy were united into one kingdom. 

What was the Treaty of Washington and why was it important? 

During this period "The Dark Continent" was explored. (Living- 
stone had gone to Africa as early as 1840). In what way was this of 
importance to us? What discoveries were made? Note that the con- 
tinent of Africa had the same experience in the last half of the 19th 
century that America had in the 17th. What nations have secured 
parts of Africa. See map. 

What important events happened in China during this period? 

Though it is impossible to dwell on these foreign events to any ex- 
tent it is well to mention them so that the children may be conscious 
of the relation of world history to our own. 

(7) Development of Wisconsin. Who were some of our leaders? 
What industries were developed? Note the increase in population from 
decade to decade. Progress in education. Establishment of High 
Schools. Growth of the Agricultural College. 

h. The last period — from the Spanish-American War to the present 
time. 

In studying this period have pupils note especially the great prob- 
lems that are before the country today and have them become acquaint- 
ed with the great leaders. Emphasize the truth that the solution of 
these p'roblems is in the hands of the people and that it is of great im- 
portance that the people be trained to think about them. 

(1) Who are the great leaders in this period? Include induztral 
(especially agricultural) leaders, educational leaders, inventors and 
writers as well as political leaders. 

(2) What territory was acquired? How did we get it and why? 
What states have been admitted since the Spanish War? Are there 

any territories at the present time? 

(3) Inventions, improvements, etc. Effect of the introduction of 
the gasoline engine. What machinery have we as a result? The trans- 
mission of electrical power to distant points. Harnessing the water 
power. Farm machinery. Mechanical devices for making house work 
easier. Concrete building material. 



HISTORY 279 

The Panama Canal. How long is it? When was it built? How long 
did it take? What did it cost? How is it managed? What kind of 
ships go through it? Effect upon commerce. 

The Pacific cable. Through American effort the world was girdled 
by a wire. 

Wireless telegraphy and telephony, moving pictures, color photog- 
raphy, etc. Have pupils make a list of the important inventions of the 
twentieth century. Here is an excellent opportunity in training them 
to look up topics to secure information. Many of these topics make 
excellent material for literary society programs. 

(4) What is the population of the United States at the present 
time? The area? Have immigrants been coming to this country the 
last twenty years? From what countries have they come? Has there 
been a westward movement of the population? Growth of cities. At 
the present time do more people live in cities or in country communi- 
ties? How was the condition formerly? 

(5) Great questions. Impress upon the pupils that they will 
have a share in the solution of these problems. Have the pupils make 
a list of problems that^ they consider of importance. Encourage them 
to contribute to this discussion. 

Among the problems which may be brought up are the following: 
(a) Education: Are all people getting the education they need? (b) 
Health: Can health conditions be improved? How? (c) Conservation: 
Forests, water-power, mines, health, life, (d) Capital and labor, (e) 
Regulation of corporations, (f) Ownership and control of monopolies, 
(g) Roads, (h) Liquor traffic, (i) Woman suffrage, (j) Amusements 
and recreation, (k) Equitable taxation. (1) International relations, 
etc. 

The discussion of these topics is, of course, beyond the ability of the 
children but it is well to call attention to their existence so that they 
may keep them in mind as they grow up. 

(6) Foreign relations. The twentieth century has seen some 
great developments in international affairs. The Russo-Japanese War 
had a marked effect upon both countries participating. What change 
has taken place in the government of Russia? Standing of Japan as a 
power. What changes have taken place in the Chinese government? 

What effects did the Spanish-American War have upon our country? 
What is our relation to Cuba? 

The Mexican situation. Who have been the principal characters in 
the struggle? Two important questions involved are the land question 
and the question of education. Lands are owned by the wealthy. The 
illiteracy of the country is very high. 

The European War. What nations have participated in the conflict? 
In what way does this war differ from previous wars? 

What does your textbook say a'blout the Hague TribunalT Has our 
country made use of this court? 

(7) Wisconsin progress in the twentieth century. Who are our 
leaders? Give a prominent place to industrial (especially agricultural) 



28 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

leaders. Have pupils name persons in their own communities who are 
doing things that contribute to progress. Make a list of prominent 
farmers that have a state reputation. 

In what industries and products does our state rank high? The Bab- 
cock tester. Wisconsin as a stock state; as a seed grain state. (See 
also p. 183.) 

How many cities in Wisconsin have a population exceeding 20,000? 
How many miles of railroad are there in our state? (See railroad 
map.) Can you name any large electric power plants from which 
power is transmitted to distant parts? (Kilbourn, St. Croix Falls, Red 
Cedar Falls, White River, Florence, High Falls, Porterfield, Quinsec 
Falls, Prairie du Sac, Hatfiel.d, Wissota.) 

Educational facilities in Wisconsin. Growth of State Graded Schools. 
Special courses in High Schools (agriculture, domestic science). Im- 
provements in country schools. Rise of County Training Schools for 
teachers. Increased facilities for higher education. 



III. SPECIAL TOPIC 

The following brief article embodying the principal essentials of gen- 
eral history is given to aid teachers in presenting to the children in a 
systematic way the great events of the world's history previous to the 
discovery of America. 

A Suminai'y of the Workrs Histoiy up to the Discovery of Ameiica 

Find on the globe the Nile River in Africa, and the Euphrates and 
Tigris Rivers in Asia. Note the general location and courses of these 
rivers. In these two river valleys were found the world's two first 
great civilizations. 

1. Eg:ypt. Egypt has been called "The Gift of the Nile." This 
country consists of the narrow flood plain and the delta of the Nile 
River. On either side is a vast desert. Because of the dry climate 
many of the works of the old Egyptians have been preserved, among- 
which are pyramids. These large structures were used as burial places 
for the kings and were built many centuries before Joseph was sold 
into this land by his brethren. The Egyptians had mastered the art 
of embalming and as a result bodies of persons living thousands of 
years ago are in fair state of preservation and can be seen in museums. 
Besides its massive architecture Egypt has given to the world con- 
tributions in astronomy, geometry, and medicine. The rulers were 
called Pharaohs. One of the most noted characters was Rameses II, 
who lived about 1300 B. C. 

2. Assyria and Babylonia. Note on the map the country drained 
by the Euphrates and the Tigris. This is a largie valley and in it we 
find in ancient times the great nations of Assyria, Chaldea, and Baby- 
lonia. The name Mesopotamia also occurs, which is a Greek word 
meaning "the land between the rivers." Assyria was the northern or 
upper part of the valley, while Babylonia occupied the lower part. 
Both of these nations were powerful but finally Babylonia becam.e su- 



HISTORY 281 



preme and for a short perod was a world empire. The greatest his- 
toric character was Nebuchadnezzar, who lived about 600 B. C. The 
empire fell with the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus the Persian in 538.. 
Our knowledge of these countries has been obtained largely through 
excavations of the ruins. There were large temples and palaces, and 
at Nineveh there was a large royal library. The "hanging gardens of 
Babylon," and the pyramids of Egypt are among the great wonders of 
the ancient world. From the Babylonians we have contributions in 
astronomy and mathematics. 

3. Media and Persia. ' To the east of the Tigris valley lies the Pla- 
teau of Iran. On this tableland there lived in the early days two 
classes of people, the Persians in the south and the Medes in the 
more hilly regions of the northern part. At first Media was the lead- 
ing power but the whole plateau early came under the power of Cyrus 
the Great. In the preceding paragraph reference is made to his fur- 
ther conquest of Babylon. He extended his conquests until Persia be- 
came a world power and extended from the Indus River to Europe 
including the country of Lj^dia of which Croesus was at that time 
king. Other noted kings of this vast empire were Darius I and his 
son Xerxes. After the death of the latter the empire declined until 
under Darius III it was overthrown by Alexander the Great at the 
Battle of Arbela in 3 31 B. C. 

Sometime before Cyrus there lived in Persia a man named Zoroaster 
who was a great religious leader. His system is gizen in the Zend 
Avesta the sacred book of the Persians. The early architecture of the 
Persians was simple in contrast to that of the Babylonians, but the 
later monarchs gave themselves over to lives of extravagance and 
luxury. 

4. Jiulea and Plioenieia. Between the mighty empire of the East 
and Egypt lies a little country no larger than that part of Wisconsin 
lying between Milwaukee and Green Bay and extending as far from 
Lake Michigan as the city of Oshkosh. This is Judea, or Palestine. 
Although it is small, this country has had a great influence on the his- 
tory of the whole world, for it is here that both Judaism and Christi- 
anity have their origin. 

About 4000 years ago Abraham, the father of the Jewish people, left 
his home in Ur of the Chaldees and made his home among the tribes 
of Canaan. His grandson Jacob, the third "patriarch," moved to 
Egypt because of the famine in the land. Joseph, the son of Jacob, 
had been sold by his brethren and had been taken to the land of the 
Pharaoh, where he had arisen to power. After .400 years the descend- 
ants of Jacob were led "out of bondage" by Moses and taken to the 
Promised Land which was conquered under the leadership of Joshua. 
On the journey the people received fhe law which is embodied in the 
Ten Commandments. The tribes were afterwards united under a king. 
The two greatest kings were David and Solomon, who ruled about 
1000 B. C. Solomon's temple was one of the great architectural ac- 
complishments of the East. 

It was in the village of Bethlehem that Jesus Christ was born. At 
that time Judea was under the rule of Rome and Augustus was em- 
peror. Jerusalem was the great religious center of the Jews, who used 
to assemble there at the great festivals. The city was destroyed by 
Titus, the Roman general in the year 70 A. D. 

Note especially the fortunate location of Judea as a country for 
spreading ideas. 

To the north of Judea extending along the coast between the Le- 
banon Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea lay the ancient country 
of Phoenicia. This was the principal sea-faring nation of the ancient 
world. The "cedars of Lebanon" were used in the construction of 



282 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



ships. The Phoenicians sailed to all parts of the Mediterranean Sea 
and even went as far as England where they bought tin. Tyre and 
Sidon were the two important cities. Colonies were established among 
which was Carthage, the great rival of Rome. Being a maritime na- 
tion Phoenicia did much to disseminate knowledge among different 
countries. The Phoenicians introduced the art of alphabet writing. 

5. China and Japan. "Very little of importance has been given us 
regarding the early history of these two nations. They have followed 
a policy of self-exclusion and mingled little with the nations to the 
west. Their educational tendencies were to worship the past and all 
new departures in thought and action were looked upon with disfavor. 
In the third century B. C, the celegrated Chinese Wall was built to 
protect the country from the invasion of the Huns on the north. Com- 
pare the length of this wall with the distance from New York to Chi- 
cago. 

About 500 B. C. there lived in China a- great teacher who has had a 
great influence on the people of the East. This man was Confucius. 
His golden rule was "What you do not want done to yourself, do not 
do to others." 

It is of interest to know that the art of printing by means of blocks 
was first used in China. Writing was used at a very early date. Gun- 
powder is also an invention of the Chinese. 

6. India. At the time that Confucius lived in China there lived a 
man in India known by the name of Buddha. He was the founder of 
Buddhism, one of the great religions of the world. This religion was a 
revolt against Brahmanism, another form of religion of India. Brah- 
manism is at the root of the caste system. 

7. Greece. In the southern part of Europe is the little country of 
Greece, which is a little smaller than Wisconsin. Note that the shore 
line is deeply indented by bays and harbors. The surface of the coun- 
try is hilly. In the olden days this small country was divided into 
many small states each of which had charge of its own government. 
Sparta and Athens were two of the most noted of them, though each 
was a city. 

One of the most noted characters of ancient Greece is the poet 
Homer. His poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, have been read by all 
civilized nations and are among the world's most noted literature. 

Greece is noted especially for the many beautiful things it has given 
to civilization. In physical training, in sculpture, in architecture, and 
in literature this nation stands out prominently. The Olympian games 
were held every fourth year and these contests had a great influence 
in developing health and strength in the people. Contests were also 
held in oratory, poetry and history. As a result of this training the 
Greeks began to excel in all these arts. Among its noted men were 
the philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle; the historians Herod- 
otus, Thucydides and Xenophon; the sculptor Phidias; the father of 
medicine Hippocrates; the dramatists Aeschylus, Sophocles and Eu- 
ripides, the orator Demosthenes. The highest degree of perfection in 
these arts was reached during the "golden age of Prices" in the fifth 
century B. C. 

Greece was threatened by the Empire of Persia and wars between 
the two countries were fought. Grecian civilization was saved to the 
world by the victory at Marathon 49 B. C. It was in one of these 
wars that the 300 Spartans won their fame at the Pass of Thermopylae 
(480 B. C). Under the leadership of Alexander the Great the Persians 
were completely defeated, as well as the other nations — Egypt, Pho- 
enicia — and Greece became a world empire extending from the Indus 
to the Adriatic. Alexander died in 323 at the age of 32, a victim to 



HISTORY 283 



drunkenness. His kingdom was at first divided into four parts and 
later broken up into many small fragments, but all parts were finally 
conquered by Rome. 

8. Rome. Prom 753 B. C. to 47G A. D., a period of 1229 years — 
this is the span of Roman history. It is supposed that it was in 753 
B. C. that Romulus, the first king founded the city known as the "city 
of the seven hills," the city which became the mistress of the world, 
and it was in the year 47 6 A. D., the last Roman emperor Romulus 
Augustulus ("the little Augustus") a child six; years of age, was de- 
posed and the power passed into the hands of Odoacer, the chief of a 
German tribe. It is interesting to note that this great nation began 
and ended with a man named Romulus as ruler. 

The early history of Rome, like that of the other nations of the an- 
cient world, is legendary. The religion of the early Romans was much 
like that of the Greeks except that the deities were given different 
names, Jupiter taking the plac of Zeus, Juno of Hera, Neptune of Pos- 
eidon, etc. Previous to 5 09 Rome was ruled by kings, but from that 
year to the forniation of the empire with Augustus at the head, the 
nation was known as a republic. 

Rome conquered the other nations of the world, including her great 
rival Carthage, and made herself the ruler, but in doing so. she ab- 
sorbed the good things those nations had developed and passed them 
on to the other nations of the West. She was a nation' of great mil- 
itary power and gave to the world a great object lesson in organiza- 
tion of government. Greek education and culture still continued to 
influence the world and these were passed on and added to by the 
Romans, but the Romans are especially noted in history for their con- 
tribution to law. 

The climax of Roman domination was reached under the famous 
leader Julius Caesar whose conquests extended from Britian to the 
far East. He was assassinated in 44 B. C, and a few years after- 
wards Augustus became the emperor. The reign of the latter, (from 
31 B. C. to 14 A. D.) may be compared to the "Age of Pericles" in 
Greek history and it was during this period that Rome was especially 
active in art and literature. Augustus said, "I found Rome a city of 
brick; I leave it a city of marble." Vergil, the writer of The Aeneid, 
lived during this period. It was also during the reign of Augustus 
that Jesus Christ was born. Christianity spread gradually in spite of 
persecution until it was made the religion of the court by Constantino 
the Great in the fourth century. 

9. The Middle Ages. The period extending from the fall of Rome 
in 476 A. D., to the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492 is 
known as the Middle Ages. In contrast to this period, the time after 
the discovery of America is called the Modern Age. 

The great Roman Empire was weakened because of internal degen- 
eration. For this reason it fell a prey to the sturdy northern tribes. It 
was invaded three times before its final fall — by the Goths under 
Alaric in 410, by the Huns under Attila in 451, and by the Vandals 
under Genseric in 455. Though Rome as a nation fell in 476, its ac- 
cumulated civilization was not lost, but was transmitted to the nations 
that followed. 

The Middle Ages may be divided into two parts, the Dark Ages and 
the Age of Revival. The former is the time of beginnings and is char- 
acterized by great migrations. The latter is known as the Renaissance 
and is noted for the great awakening due to a revival of learning. The 
first of these periods blends gradually into the second. 

a. Dark ages. Three of the most conspicuous characters during 
the Dark Ages were the following: 



-284 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF" STUDY 



(1) Moliammccl, who in G2 2 began a movement that resulted in 
the founding- of one of the world's great religions. The Arabs followed 
his leadership and proceeded to conquer the world with the sword. 
They took Egypt, pressed on through the Barbary States, landed in 
Spain, crossed the Pyrenees into Prance, sweeping everything before 
them until they were met by the Christians under Charles Martel (The 
"Hammer") and defeated in the Battle of Tours in 732, just 100 years 
after Mohammed's death. The Cross triumphed over the Crescent and 
as a result the Teuton and not the Arab became the master in Europe. 
Many of the Moslems, however, remained in Spain where they were 
known as Moors. Their capital city, Granada, was finally taken in 
1492. 

(2) CliariemagTtie, or Charles the Great, who was crowned em- 
peror of the Holy Roman Empire on Christmas Day, 800. Tliis was 
one of the most important events of the Middle Ages, as it was in a 
way the restoration of the old empire. During the forty-five years of 
his reign this great man not only reunited the fragments of the West- 
ern Empire but did much for the cause of education. His successor 
was a weak ruler and the result was that his empire was divided into 
three parts at the Treaty of Verdun in 8 43. These three divisions 
correspond roughly to the present countries of Germany, Prance and 
Italy. 

(3) Alfred the Grea> of England, who stands out prominently 
not only as an organizer of the nation, but also as a writer and a pro- 
moter of education and Christianity. He lived about a century after 
Charlemagne. 

lb. The A^e of Revival was ushered in by great religious military 
expedition known as the Crusades. During the 11th, 12th and 13th 
centuries large numbers of Christian people in the West were enlisted 
in a movement to rescue The Holy Land from the Mohammedans. 
There were nine of these crusades, one being known as "The Chil- 
dren's Crusade." Because of these expeditions thousands of western 
people became acquainted with the East, and as a result knovv^ledge 
was spread. Commerce was established with the Orient and several 
European cities, notably Genoa and Venice, became famous for their 
extensive commerce. 

The study of the ancient classics which had been abandoned to a 
great extent during the Dark Ages, was resumed. There was also a 
great revival in art and the period resembles the "Age of Pericles" in 
ancient Greece. Among the great artists were Raphael, Michael An- 
gelo, Titian, and Correggio. Their paintings were based largely upon 
religious subjects. 

The art of printing was invented about the middle of the fifteenth 
century. As a result it became much easier to receive knowledge and 
to spread it. The invention of the compass opened up new possibili- 
ties in navigation. 

With the introduction of gunpowder a great change came over 
Europe. The method of warfare was revolutionized, the armored 
knight gave place to the soldier with the gun and the age of knight- 
hood and chivalry came to an end. 

Among the great characters who lived during the Age of Revival 
were the following: 

(1) The great painters already mentioned. 

(2) Marco Polo, the great Asiatic traveler. 

(3) Prince Henry, the Navigator. 

(4) Arnold Winkelried, the Swiss patriot, 

(5) Wallace and Bruce, the Scotch heroes. 

(6) Joan of Arc, the girl soldier of Orleans. 

(7) Wyclif of England, and Hus of Bohemia, two great relig- 
ious leaders. 

Genghis Khan, the great Mongol leader. 



HISTORY 285 



IV. TESTS AND EXAMINATIONS 
When a pupil has finished the common school he should be able to 
pass, with a good standing, an examination or test based upon the' fol- 
lowing standard: 

1. A general knowledge of the great nations of ancient and medieval 
history and the most conspicuous characters and events of the world's 
history previous to the discovery of America as set forth in the article 
in III. The pupils should be able to tell a number of stories about 
some of these characters and show a great familiarity with the library 
Uooks in which such stories are found. Questions based on this phase 
of the history should be carefully formulated so that they may not call 
for knowledge that could not be expected of put)ils of elementary school 
age. 

2. A general knowledge of the discoverers and explorers listed in the 
course of study. Details of voyages, etc., should not be expected in the 
answers. 

3. A general knowledge of the thirteen colonies. Pupils should be 
able to name them in order. They should have a general knowledge of 
a few of the conspicuous leaders and the importance of the work they 
did. They should also be able to give something concerning the. life of 
the people in these early days. Emphasis shuld be laid upon Virginia 
and Massachusetts. 

4. A general knowledge of the work of the French in the St. Lawrence 
and Mississippi Valleys, especially a knowledge of the early characters 
in Wisconsin history. 

5. A general knowledge of the struggle between the French and the 
English for supremacy in America. Details should not be required. 
The leaders should be made prominent, — Washington, Braddock, Pitt, 
Montcalm and Wolfe. 

6. A general knowledge of the Revolution with its leaders and prin- 
cipal events. Em.phasis should be laid upon the matter given in the 
outline. Details should not be asked for in an examination. 

7. A knowledge of the constitutional convention and the ordinance of 
1787. The compromises of the constitution may be asked for although 
that topic was specifically outlined in the civil government course. 

8. A knowledge of the most important characters and events of the 
constitutional period as indicated in the outline. Insignificant events 
should not be asked for. To do so is to place emphasis on non-essen- 
tials. Too much emphasis should not be laid upon purely political 
questions. Let the industrial and social phases stand out prominently. 

9. A general knowledge of the important current events, especially 
those relating to industrial development. 

10. A knowledge of some of the most important leaders of the 
present time and the work they are doing. This should include local 
leaders as v>^ell as those of national and international reputation. 

Note: By "general knovi^ledge" is not meant the ability to make a 
few unrelated statements about a subject, but rather a definite knowl- 
edge regarding the great things a person has done, a definite knowledge 
regarding the results of an event. 



286 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

11. In addition to the examination given to test the pupil's ready 
knowledge of history there should be given a test to ascertain his abil- 
ity to find and use historical material. Questions may be given each 
pupil with the instruction to get the answer from any source whatever, 
— books, other persons, etc. The time in which these questions are fo 
be worked out may vary with the difficulty of the questions. The fol- 
lowing are suggestive: 

a. Find the rate per cent of increase in the population of the United 
States during each of the decades from 1790 to 1910. What is the aver- 
age rate? At the same rate of increase what would the population of 
the country be in 1950? In 2000? 

b. Find the following information regarding the Suez and Panama 
Canals: Length, nature of the country through which they pass, when 
constructed, time of construction, cost, locks, how managed, etc. 

c. Who have been emperors of Germany since the formation of the 
German Empire in 1871? 

Tests of the above can easily be given by the teacher by assigning 
topics. The training given the pupils in getting information necessary 
to answer questions like the above is of great value. 

It is perhaps difficult for the county superintendent to invent methods 
by which this power can be tested. Questions for this purpose might 
hie sent to the schools some time before the examination and given to 
the pupils to work out and bring to the examination in the same way 
that local district maps have been prepared in some counties. 



V. REFERENCES 

1. References for teachers and institutions training teachers 

Charters. Teaching- the common branches, p. 241-65. (T) 

Cubherley. Rural life and education, chapters 1-2. Houghton. 

Hart. Formation of the union. (T) 

Kendall & Mirick. How to teach the fundamental branches, 
p. 253-65. Houg-hton. 

Liist of books for township libraries. Issued by the State Super- 
intendent, Madison, Wis. 

McMurry. Handbook of practice for teachers, p. 118-2 9. Mac- 
millan. 

McMurry. Special method in history. Macmillan. 

Rice. Lessons on the use of the- school library, p. 20, 74, 112-19, 
Issued by the State Superintendent, Madison, Wis. 

State reading cu'cle board. Bulletin on teachers' and young peo- 
ple's reading circles. Gives list of books for history and bi- 
ography reading in the different grades. State Reading Cir- 
cle Board, Madison, Wis. 

Wilson. Division and reunion. (T) 

2. References for teachers and pupils 

Champlin. Cyclopedia of persons and places. Teach them to 
use this reference book and any other encyclopedia to which 
they may have access. 

Blue book 

Memorial day annuals 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 287 

A textbook or two different from the regular text ii.'.ed by the 
class. It is a good plan to get children familiar with at least one text 
besides their own. This also trains them in studying topics. Teach 
the children to use indexes. 

Books ill the library dealing with biography, history, and histori- 
cal fiction. In selecting the library books care should be taken to get 
some of the best and most usable books for the history work. For a list 
of suitable books the teacher is referred to the township library itself 
(and to the reading circle list). A brief summary is given with each 
title. There are so many good books dealing with the lives of great 
men that it is not practicable to give an extended list here. A few 
books are, however, suggested for reference work and general reading: 

Andrews. Ten Boys. (T) 

Baldwin. Fifty famous stories retold. (T) 

Baldwin. Thirty more famous stories retold. (T) 

Bald\vin. Stories of the East. (T) 

Bourne & Benton. Introductory American History. (T) 

Eggleston. A first book in American history. (T) 

Gordy. American beginning's in Europe. (T) 

<5k>rdy. American leaders and heroes. (T) 

Kittle. Freedom vs. slavery. (T) 

MacCoun. An historical geography. (T) 

Mace. Lincoln, the man of the people. (T) 

McMurry. Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley. (T) 

MowTj-. First steps in the history of our country. (T) 

Niver. Great names and nations (Ancient). (T) 

Niver. Great names and nations (Modern). (T) 

Scudder. George Washington. (T) 

Starr. American Indians. (T) 

Stone and Fickett. Days and deeds a hundred years ago. (T) 

Tappan. American hero stories. (T) 

Tliwaites. Stories of the Badger State. (T) 



288 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



I. GENKRAIi SUGGESTIONS 

1. The general plant of this Course of Study is that there shall be a 
separate civil government class in the seventh grade and a separate 
history class in the eighth grade. 

2. Much of the civil government work should be done in general exer- 
cises with the whole school. Even the smaller children are kept inter- 
ested in what is going on in the work and the entire school is kept alert 
and interested in current events. There should perhaps be at least one 
such exercise per week, taken up at the time the event occurs (the 
meeting of the county board in November for example). In some in- 
stances it may be necessary to continue one line of work for general 
exercises during several consecutive days. 

3. Some of the textbooks used in the elementary school contain too 
much material and are too difficult for the children of that grade. As a 
result of textbook teaching, the children often tire of the subject and 
get very little out of it. To interest children in a subject, to get them 
to like it and to want to know more about it is the true measure of 
success in teaching. For this reason the textbook should be simple, 
well written, and within comprehension of the children. Portions that 
are beyond the understanding of the children, and portions that are 
not of material importance to the ordinary citizen should be omitted, 

4. The general purpose of the work in this subject is to aid pupils 
to understand the necessity for government, and to arouse interest in 
the operations of government. Emphasize the fact that the pupils are 
citizens and so should take an intelligent interest in the affairs of gov- 
ernment. 

5. There are certain fundamental facts regarding our government 
that should be taught thoroughly. These should he drilled upon, like 
the essential facts in arithmetic, until they are well-known. There are 
many other facts which the pupil should be taught to find for himself 
by using the Constitution, the Blue Book, and other sources of refer- 
ence. One prime object to be attained in teaching this subject is to 
train the pupil to find and to use availaWe reference material. 

For suggestive lessons on the use of the Blue Book see p. 55, Lessons 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 289 

on the Use of the School Library. Other suggestive lessons on civic 
material are given on pages 79-92 and 95-6. Especially give the pupils 
training in the proper use of the newspaper. 

6. Approach the government of each political division in this way: 
(a) What things need to be done? (b) What meetings and officers are 
provided to do these things? (c) Is the work well done? (d) How can 
private citizens help to have good government? The functions of of- 
ficers can be illustrated by reference to methods used by boys and girls 
in their games and societies; the selection of captain, umpire, treasurer, 
etc. The same officers can be seen in church societies, lodges, and 
other similar organizations. Make reference to these well known facts. 

7. The ethical bearings of these subjects should receive constant em- 
phasis. Show how some men and women give freely of their time and 
effort to public service; how poor work and waste in public business 
hurts every member of a community; how misuse of time or money be- 
longing to the public is stealing; how public property ought to be cared 
for. The work may be correlated with geography at some points and 
also with language. 

8. In order to be an efficient teacher of civil government it is neces- 
sary to know the civic operations from direct observation. Those who 
have in charge the training of teachers should take their classes to the 
court house and other places when and where civic functions can be 
observed. The officers will show the students just how things are done 
and as a result both the understanding and the memory will be aided. 
Studying civil government from books only, is an entirely inadequate 
method of learning the subject. 

Teachers will find it advisable to call upon county officers, town 
officers, and other persons who are in the public service and learn from 
them how things are done. In some instances it may be possible to take 
the children on an excursion to see public buildings and to meet public 
officials. All teaching should, as far as possible, be based upon what 
the pupils have learned from direct observation. 

9. The children should become familiar with the State and Federal 
Constitutions in order that they may be able to turn to them to find 
answers to questions. 

10. Teachers should become thoroughly acquainted with the contents 
of the textbook and also familiar with the civics reference material con- 
tained in the library. The County Board Proceedings and Blue Book 
may be had free. Look over the list of civil government books on the 
Township Library list to determine if there are any books named that 
ought to be added to the library. 

11. If possible, there should be organized in every school a literary 
society, or club, to meet weekly or bi-weekly on Fridays after recess. 
Through these meetings the pupils should be taught the elements of 

19 — S. M. 



290 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

parliamentary practice and they should also give short programs which 
they have been largely instrumental in preparing. The training re- 
ceived in such a society is invaluable and the meetings furnish a mo- 
tive for much of their regular school work especially language and 
civics. It is the duty of the school as far as possible to give the chil- 
dren the training that will prepare them for .the duties of life. To give 
them the ability to participate intelligently in public discussions is cer- 
tainly one of the most important phases of instruction. 

12. The management of the school itself is the most vital phase of 
civic instruction. To attend a school where order and organization pre- 
vail is in itself a training in good citizenship. A teacher who is secur- 
ing the cooperation of the pupils in the management of the school is 
continually developing in the children the right attitude toward so- 
ciety. He is training citizens. On the other hand, a teacher who has 
poor order, who permits the children to do as they pleas3 is an 
example and an influence that tends to undermine society and gov- 
ernment no matter what may be the merit of the information he im- 
parts in the regular civil government class. 



II. COUKSE OF STUDY 

1. General exercises. The following suggestive material is given 
to aid teachers in preparing and conducting general exercises on civic 
topics. Superintendents should insist that such portions as are appro- 
priate be given in the schools and it may be well for them occasionally 
to conduct such exercises when they visit schools. 

a. Primary election. Get sample ballots or use ballots pub- 
lished in the papers. Each party nominates its candidates. A person 
can vote only for candidates of one party. He makes his choice of one 
person for each office on his party ticket. Before the primary election 
system was adopted, each party had its conventions to nominate candi- 
dates for office. The people held caucuses and elected delegates to these 
conventions. The primary election law was passed in 1907. The pri- 
mary election is held the first Tuesday in September in the even num- 
bered years. Wko can vote at an election? 

b. General election. Find out from some voter how the elec- 
tion is managed, the number of ballot clerks, election inspectors, etc. 
Get sample ballots and have the children look them over. Teach method 
of marking. Near the close of the day the little children may, if nec- 
essary, be dismissed early, and the larger ones conduct an election. 
Discuss with the children the parts of the ticket,— county, state and 
national. Take each office in turn and discuss the work connected with 
that office. When will the term for each official commence? What is 
the length of his term? The general election in Wisconsin is held on 
the Tuesday after the first Monday in November in the even numbered 
years. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT lOl 

The inauguration of the state officers is held the first Monday in 
January. At that time give a general exercise on that topic. 

c. County board meeting. Regular meeting begins the Tues- 
day next succeeding the second Monday in Novem'bier each year. If 
special meetings are called, call attention to them at the time they are 
held and discuss the purposes for which they are called. Who are the 
members of the county board? Who represents the town (or village or 
city)? Note the list of members of the board published in the local 
paper. Call attention to the fact that the county board is a representa- 
tive body. Have map of county before the school. 

Where does your county board meet? Who is chairman? What 
are his duties,? Note the committees. Why have committees? Do 
the boards consist of the same number of members in each county? 
Why? Note from the local paper some of the business done by 
your county board. When are the members of the county board 
elected? For what term? How much tax is levied by your board 
this year? (This can be answered when the proceedings are pub- 
lished.) How long is your board in session? 

d. Thanksgiving day. Read the proclamations issued by the 
President and by the Governor. The custom of having a day of 
public thanksgiving is an old one and was in vogue among the 
Greeks, the Romans, and the Hebrews. Take up with the two 
lower classes, as language work, the story of the first Thanksgiving 
in New England. 

e. Congress convenes at 12 o'clock noon on the first Monday 
in December every year. Call attention to this event at i/ o'clock 
and manage to hold a general exercise at that time. When it is 
12 o'clock at Washington it is 11 o'clock in Wisconsin. Why? 
Each Congress lasts two years and holds two regular sessions, — a 
long and a short. In what years are the short sessions held? 
Why? The Congresses are numbered. The first Congress began 
its work in 1789 and finished in 1791. The Congress from 1889 — ■ 
1891 was the 51st and the one from 1915 — 1917 is the 64th. In 
December, 1916, have on the board this statement: The second 
(or short) session of the 64th Congress begins its session at 12 
o'clock noon, Monday, Dec. 4, 1916. This session will close at 12 
o'clock noon, March 4, 1917. Why? 

Who is your representative in the House? If possible, show a 
picture of the room in which the representatives meet. How many 
representatives has Wisconsin? Which state has the largest num- 
ber? Are there any states that have only one? Why? What is 
the total number in the House? On what is the number of rep- 
resentatives from any state based? Who is the presiding officer? 
What are his duties? What is the annual salary of a representa- 
tive? 

Who are the senators from Wisconsin? How many in the Senate 
room when all the members are present? Show picture of Sen- 
ate chamber, if possible.. Who presides? Is be privileged to vote? 



292 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

The president's message is published. Show it to the schooL 
Did the president read it or did he send it to be read? Was it 
read to the two houses separately or were they together? 

'Call attention from time to time to important measures before 
Congress. 

f. Payment of taxes. Taxes are usually paid in January. To 
whom are the taxes paid? Sometimes local papers state that the 
town treasurer will be at certain places on given days to receive 
taxes. Part of the money paid goes to the support of the school, 
part to pay the expenditures of the town, part to the county and 
part to the state. What is a direct tax? Do we pay direct taxes 
to the United States government? If not, how does the federal 
government get money? What is a tax receipt? The town clerk 
makes out the tax roll and gives it to the town treasurer who does 
the collecting. The advanced arithmetic and civic classes should 
ascertain the amount raised by the town and the tax rate. 

g. The legislature meets in regular session at noon on the sec- 
ond Wednesday of January every odd numbered year. Election of 
speaker. Wbat are his duties? Lieutenant governor president of 
Senate. Appointment of committees as in the case of the county 
board. The governor's message. Important bills mentioned from 
time to time. Who is your assemblyman? Your senator? How 
many members are there in each house of the legislature? 

h. Washington's birthday. Many incidents from the life of 
Washington can be mentioned in connection with the language 
work and general exercises. Give one exercise to the whole school 
on "Washington in the Constitutional Convention". Write on the 
board the list of the signers of the constitution. Call attention to 
well-known characters such as Franklin, Robert Morris, Madison, 
and Hamilton. Washington was presiding officer. Madison kept 
record of the proceedings and this record has been published. (It 
is of interest to know that most of the streets in the vicinity of 
the Capitol at Madison are named after the signers of the "Consti- 
tution.) For four months these men worked in Philadelphia dur- 
ing the summer of 1787 and the result of their labors is our fed- 
eral Constitution, the supreme law of the land. Incidentally it has 
shaped the constitutions of the States^ Why? 

i. March 4. At 12 o'clock noon (11 o'clock by our time) in 
every odd numbered year Congress finishes its work. Sometimes 
you will hear that they move the hands of the clock back. Why? 
Every fourth year the presidential inauguration takes place on this 
date. 

j. The annual town meeting and spring election. Get infor- 
mation from parties who know about town affairs. Are there any 
special matters coming before your town meeting this year? Who 
are the candidates for town oflBces. Procure ballots. How were 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 29 3 

these officers nominated? Have results of the election brought in 
the following day. Call attention to election of judicial and edu- 
cational officers. Why are these elected at the spring election? 

k. Arbor Day. Read the governor's proclamation. What is 
the purpose of observing Arbor day? A neat, attractive school 
yard has a wholesome influence on the whole community. How? 
Likewise a neat and attractive home influences every one that 
passes it. What can we do to make and keep this schoolhouse 
and grounds as attractive as possible? What are the children do- 
ing individually to help their parents make the homes and home 
grounds beautiful? Make use of Arbor Day Manuals. See espe- 
cially "Suggestions for Improvement of School Grounds" on p. 40, 
issue of 1915. Emphasize conservation of useful plants and ani- 
mals. 

I. Memorial Day. Make much of the observance of this day 
if school is in session. Have a patriotic program. Two or more 
schools may join in a celebration. If possible, have a soldier talk 
to the children. Have children make a list of the names of the 
old soldiers still living in the neighborhood. Have children note 
the graves of soldiers. 

What great questions were settled by the Civil War? What 
would have been the result if the "Boys in Blue" had not offered 
their lives in the service of the country? Read "The Blue and 
the Gray" or have it recited. Also cultivate a feeling of charity 
towards the "Boys in Gray". Make use of the Memorial Day 
Manuals. (See also p. 260.) 

m. Fourth of July. Schools are not in session at this time 
but some time during the year discuss the significance of Inde- 
pendence Day. Have the children imagine the events as they oc- 
curred. The accounts should be graphic and realistic and not phil- 
osophic. "The Independence Bell." Have the poem read or re- 
cited. This bell made a journey to the Panama exposition. The 
inscription on the bell. What would likely have happened to the 
signers of the Declaration if England had won? Were the colonists 
rebels? 

II. Circuit court sessions. These vary in different counties. 
Take this topic aip with the pupils when the court io held. Who 
is circuit judge? How many counties in this circuit? Have the 
children note the 36 names of jurors published in the local paper. 
How many of the names are familiar? These names were chosen 
by lot from a large number of names (400) prepared by a com- 
mittee appointed by the judge. Note in the local paper the court 
calendar giving the titles of the cases to be tried. What is meant 
by "vs". 

Draw a plan of the court room showing the judge's bench, the 
jury box and the witness stand. The judge presides, the clerk of 
the court keeps the records and the sheriff or the deputy sheriff 
is the police officer of the court. The two sides of a case are the 



294 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

prosecution and the defense. Each side usually has in its service 
one or more attorneys, 

The method of procedure in a case is usually as follows: Selec- 
tion of a jury of 12 men; examining and swearing in the jurors; 
opening of the case by the prosecution; examination and cross ex- 
amination of witnesses; lawyers' pleas closed by the plea of the 
prosecution; the judge's charge to the jury; retirement of a jury 
to a private room; the election of a foreman of the jury;, vote 
taken by jury until a unanimous verdict is reached (all 12 mem- 
bers must agree) ; entrance of jury to their places in the court 
room; delivery of verdict by foreman; reading of the verdict by 
the judge; dismissal of case by judge or pronouncement of the sen- 
tence. 

o. Work of the assessor. The children have likely taken no- 
tice of this officer as he visits each home during the summer. Dis- 
cuss with them why this needs to be done. What are some of 
the special qualifications an assessor needs to have? (Good judg- 
ment regarding property values and also impartiality.) If a per- 
son thinks the assessor fixes too high a valuation on his property, 
he may make a complaint to the Board of Review or of Equaliza- 
tion in July. This board consists of the town board, the assessor 
and town clerk. This board is privileged to raise or lower the 
estimates given by the assessor. 

p. Health officer. Who are members of the board of health 
in your town. The board chooses a health officer. Who is health 
oflUcer in your town? Cases of contagious diseases are to be re- 
ported to him and he may quarantine families having certain dis- 
eases. See pamphlet containing rules of State Board of Health. 
Great care should be exercised to keep contagious diseases, from 
spreading and it is the duty of every one to do what he can in this 
respect. It is the duty of every good citizen to promote health. 

q. Roads and bridges. When public improvements are being 
made in the community, take such topics up for general exercises. 
Secure or have the children secure information from persons doing 
the work? How is money derived and who is supervising the 
work? 

r. Care of public property. Develop in the children the right 
attitude toward public property. All public property belongs to the 
people and is paid for by the people. Destruction of public prop- 
erty indicates bad citizenship. The schoolhouse and school grounds 
are public property provided chiefly by parents of the children. 
Develop in the children a feeing of ownership and responsibility. 
Care of free textbooks and the books of the library should be dwelt 
upon. In short, teachers should do all they can through school work 
to create in the children a desire to do all they can to keep all 
property in the best possible condition. 



6iviL GOVERNMENT 29 5 

:§. Naturalization. In some localities it may be profitable to 
take this matter up briefly as a general exercise; in others in the 
regular class only. 

A person coming from another country is not a citizen ©"f this 
country until he has been naturalized. It takes at least fite years 
to become a citizen. A person must go before the court and take" 
out his "first papers" and his "second papers". At least two 
years must intervene between taking out "first" and "second" pa- 
pers. Witnesses must testify regarding the character, residence, 
etc., of the applicant. 

It is a good plan for the teacher to talk the question over with 
the clerk of the circuit court and thus get information in its de- 
tails at first hand. "Fact" blanks may be secured and shown to 
the children., The regular naturalization blanks are not given cut. 
In some parts of the state public-school teachers have been help- 
ful in preparing immigrants for citizenship. 

t. Post office. A large number of letters find their way to the 
Dead Letter Oflace each year. Why? Impress upon the children 
the importance of being careful in addressing letters. The address 
of the person sending the letter should be on the envelope. Why? 
Interference with U. S. mail is a grave offense and the penalties 
are very severe. Every person should do what he can to aid the 
mail service. Give reasons. Collect a set of the stamps in use. 
What denominations are sold? What is meant by registering a 
letter? What is a money order? Have pupils tell what they have 
noticed about the mail car. It would be profitable if the school 
could listen to a talk given by a postmaster or a mail carrier. The 
children should be encouraged to ask appropriate questions regard- 
ing matters of public interest. 

u. The United States flag. Observation and description. His- 
tory of the flag. Betsy Ross. The flag salute. Respect for the 
flag. See Memorial Day annual for 1916. 

V. Our country. Have pupils read and discuss with them por^- 
tions of Hale's "Man Without a Country". Portions of the story 
may be read to the school by the teacher or pupils. The story 
itself, told in "relays" by the pupils of the school, is an excellent 
exercise for a community pro,gram. Have the children learn to 
recite the following: 

(1) Thou, too. Sail on, O ship of State. 

(2) Breathes There a Man With Soul so Dead? 
These selections are good for concert recitations. 

w. Current events 

X. Goveriiinents of other nations with their leaders. See Blue 
Book or World Almanac. Have the pupils become familiar with 
the names of some of the world's great leaders so that they may 
be able to use these names intelligently in their regular school 
work. 



296 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

2. Outline for the civil government class in the seventh grade 

a. The family. The unit of society. Need for cooperation 
among the members. Division of duties* Have pupils tell what 
they are doing as part of the regular home work. Are there any 
duties for which they are held individually responsible? Tell the 
children duties for which you were held responsible when a child. 
If the children have not the proper attitude toward their home 
duties, try, if possible, to instill in their minds a desire to assume 
responsibility for certain phases of work and a desire to do this 
work in the best possible way. 

Place upon the board the golden rule: ''All that ye would that men do 
unto you do ye even so unto them'' What would be the result if this 
rule were observed by every one? Refer to this rule frequently 
throughout the course. In the light of this rule discuss the fol- 
lowing topics: 

(1) Health in the home: It is the duty of every person to 
keep well and help others keep well. How can it be done? 

(2) Woik in the home: Im.portance of little tasks well done. 

(3) Recreation in the home: Music, games, reading, etc. 

(4) Beautifying the home: Trees, flowers, pictures, etc. 

(5) Education in the home: Learning to do things; learning 
to make things; speaking pieces, singing songs, and telling stories 
learned in school; applying lessons learned in school; playing on mu- 
sical instruments; learning to take care of animals, plants, etc. 

Teach John Howard Paine's song, "Home, Sweet Home." 

The -above may be given in the form of general exercises to the 
whole school. 

b. The community. Bring out the fact that the welfare of 
each home depends upon the welfare of the whole community and 
that the welfare of the community depends upon the welfare of 
each home. All should work together for the common good. Give 
instances to show results that have been achieved thrugh co- 
operation. The school is one of the results. 

What has this community done or what is it doing with refer- 
ence to health? Education? Improvements? Protecting the peo- 
ple? 

c. The school. What does it cost to maintain the school? 
How is the money provided? What is the purpose of the school? 
What are the benefits of an education? What subjects do you like 
the best? Why? How is the attendance in your school? Is it as 
good as it might be? What are the results of irregular attend- 
ance? Why has the state passed compulsory attendance laws? 
What does the state require the teacher to do with reference to at- 
tendance? Why? What right has the state to make such require- 
ment? Why is it poor business to have uncomfortable, unsanitary 
school buildings? The duties of pupils with reference to school 
property. The school as a whole reflects the thought and habits 
of the teacher and the individual pupils. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 297 

d. Library lessons. In the early part of school year teach the 
following lessons as outlined in the department publication Lessons 
on the Use of the School Library: Blue Book, page 55; Memorial 
Day Annual, page 74; Government — Reference, page 95. Later in 
the year, teach the lessons on Newspapers and Magazines, pages 
79-92, in so far as the material at hand and the capacity of the 
pupils will permit. Also make use of the suggestions, in said pub- 
lications, on Governm^ent — General Reading, page 96. 

e. The government of the school district 

(1) References: The Local Governments of Wisconsin, by 
D. O. Kinsman (see Township Library List). Some of the coun- 
ties have published outlines for the use of the schools. Use these 
outlines in the study of this, and other local government topics. 

(2) Additional suggestions: If possible, have children con- 
struct a map of the school district. A survey of the district has 
perhaps been made in connection with the geography work. What 
is the area? What is the assessed valuation? (This can be ob- 
tained from the town clerk.) How much did the district raise 
locally for school purposes this year? What is the local school 
district tax rate? When was the annual school meeting held? 
What were some of the most important things done at the meet- 
ing? Does your district have a good school? What constitutes a 
good school? Who are the officers of the district? How were 
they elected and for how long? Always emphasize the thought 
that an officer is a public servant and that it is his duty to serve 
the people and do the things that the law requires done. 

f. Government of the town. Use and follow outlines men- 
tioned under the school district. 

Get" or make map of your county showing boundaries of towns, 
location of villages and cities. Have pupils copy map of town 
locating their homes, the school, etc. What work needs to be done 
for your town? Roads and bridges, care of the poor, arresting 
and punishing criminals, preventing unsanitary conditions, etc. 
Area of the town^ Population. Origin of name of town. Time 
and place of holding town meetings. Do all attend who should? 
How does your town care for the poor? Are there any specially 
difficult problems to be worked out in your town, such as making 
good roads, building bridges, etc.? How much money did your 
town raise for town purposes last spring? What is the assessed 
valuation of the town? (See county board proceedings.) In what 
range (or ranges) is your town? What is the number of the town- 
ship in which you live? Who are the town officers? Where do 
they live? An officer is a public servant working for the people. 

g. Village and city. If the school is located in or near an in- 
corporated village or city, these topics should be worked out under 
the same headings. (1) What things need to be done? (2) Who 
attends to each? Make the work concrete. Talk with officers 
about their duties. Make much of the care of public health. Make 



298 iMANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

comparison of the town government with that of a village or city. 
What additional problems have the village and city? What addi- 
tional expenses are usually necessary? Write the names of officers 
in parallel columns. Why more officers in the village and city 
than in a town? Why no public meeting for all voters in a village 
or city? What can be done to make the village or city more beau- 
tiful? Dwell upon the need of cooperation between the commer- 
cial center and the surrounding community. Discuss the value of 
public parks and playgrounds. 

h. The county. Follow outlines mentioned in e. Use county 
map and also railroad map of Wisconsin. How many counties in 
Wisconsin? What counties bound yours? What is the area of 
your county? The population? Which is the largest county in 
Wisconsin? The smallest? The most populous? Why have we 
counties? People of towns, villages, and cities have some inter- 
ests in common: roads go through several of these divisions, rec- 
ords of deeds need to be kept, the insane, paupers, and criminals 
need to be cared for, schools need supervision, etc. 

The county board. How many members? (See county board 
proceedings.) Who represents your town or village? Bring out 
the idea that the board is a representative 'body. Note the commit- 
tees on the county board. Why have commifEees? What are some 
of the things that the county board does? Get a copy of the pro- 
ceedings from the county clerk. 

County officers. Work done for the county by each. Are you 
personally acquainted with any of them? Have you visited the 
courthouse? Describe the court room. Where is the judge's bench, 
the jury box, the witness stand? What other property be- 
sides the courthouse belongs to the county? The jail, the asylum, 
the sanatorium, etc. What does the county do for education? 
Provide supervision and in some cases training schools for teachers 
and agricultural schools. What is the assessed valuation of the 
county? What part is that of the assessed valuation of the whole 
state? (Assessed valuation of the state for 1915 is $3,299,731,408.) 
What part of the assessed valuation of the county is that of your 
town? 

The exercises indicated above are valuable for training the pu- 
pils in finding and using civic material. All of these facts are not 
to be memorized and minor details should not be asked for in di- 
ploma examinations. The facts that they should memorize are 
those which relate to the larger parts of governmental machinery 
and their operations. 

i. The State. All of the people in a state are interested in 
having certain things done, so we have State government. This 
helps the towns and cities, villages and counties; (1) to keep order 
bv taking charge of the worst criminals; (2) to have good schools 
and higher institutions of learning; (3) to care for people who 
need aid, as the insane^ blind^ deaf^ etc.; (4) to make good roads; 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 29i; 

(5) to settle disputes in higher courts; (6) to make laws for the 
welfare of all the people. 

What is a Constitution? Why have one? Difference between 
this and a law. Have pupils read carefully the parts of the State 
Constitution referred to under each of the following headings, as 
a means of obtaining information upon the important topics in 
the outline. Omit all clauses that do not aid in this. Do not ask 
pupils to learn facts that adults of intelligence are not expected 
to know, and which they will seldom or never meet with in their 
future reading about governmental affairs. For example: qualifica- 
tions and privileges of members of the Legislature, the exact process 
of impeachment, sources of the school fund, limitations on the Legis- 
lature, etc. Do not require the memorizing of any part of the 
Wisconsin Constitutfon. Encourage rather the discussion of topics 
showing the actual operations of government. 
j. Constitution of Wisconsin 

(1) Article I. These 22 sections secure to the people of the 
state certain rights. This material is rather diflEicult for pupils of this 
age and may profitably be omitted. Attention may be called to a few 
of the provisions such as those in Sections 3, 4, 6, 7, 13, 18 and 19, so 
that the children know the general trend of the article' and can turn to 
it for reference when questions come up. 

(2) Article III. What are the qualifications for voters in Wis- 
consin? Who are prohibited from voting? Only citizens can vote. 
Teach this topic thoroughly. 

(3) Article IV. The legislature. See the maps in the Blue 
Book showing the assembly districts; the senate districts. What terri- 
tory is included in your assem'bly district? In your senate district? 
Who is your assemblyman? Your state senator? Number of members 
in each house, their qualifications, term of office, salary. Presiding 
oflGicers and committees. Compare with county board. Sessions. Call 
attention to important bills in the legislature while it is in session. 
Importance of the legislative work. 

The legislature provides money for the maintenance of the state gov- 
ernment and the payment of all expenses connected therewith. This is 
done by passing appropriation hills. The state has just completed the 
erection of a new Capitol at a cost of about six million dollars (ex- 
clusive of heating plant and furnishings). 

Suggestive questions like the following may be given the children in 
order to train them in getting information from the text. 

(a) If our assemblyman (or senator) should resign or move 
out of the state how would his position be filled? 

(b) Can a member of the legislature be arrested? Is there 
any exception to this rule? 

(c) How may a member of the legislature be expelled? 

(d) How many members must be present in the assembly in 
order that business may be transacted? 

(e) May the doors be closed to the public when the legisla- 
ture is in session? 



300 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

Pupils should prove their answers by quotations from the constitu- 
tion. 

(4) Article V. Governor and Lieutenant Governor. Present in- 
cumbents. Election, term 9f office, compensation, eligibility. 

Powers and duties, (a) As executive of the state the governor may 
direct the attorney general, the district attorneys, and the sheriffs of the 
state to carry out his orders. He may even call out the state. militia, 
of which he is commander in chief, in case it is necessary. The state 
militia consists of all the able-bodied men between the age of 18 and 
45 years. The National Guard is the organized state militia. (See 
p. 413-9, Blue Book of 1915.) (b) He has also power to grant pardons, 
etc. (c) He sends messages to the legislature, (d) He signs or vetoes 
bills, (e) He appoints members of commissions, boards, etc. (f) The 
Lieutenant Governor is presiding officer of the senate and takes the 
office of the governor in case of a vacancj^ 

Discuss the different methods by which bills become laws. 

(5) Article VI. Administrative department. 

(a) The Secretaiy of State keeps record of the official acts of 
the legislature and the executive department. He audits the bills of 
the state and makes orders upon the state treasurer for all moneys to 
be paid out of the state treasury. His office corresponds to that of the 
county clerk in the county and the town clerk in the town. 

(b) The office of State Treasurer corresponds to the county 
treasurer, the town treasurer and the school district treasurer. 

(c) The Attorney-General is the State's lawyer and represents 
the State in cases in which the state is a party. The district attorney 
is also the State's attorney and prosecutes local offenders in the name 
of the State. Note on the Circuit Court calendar the cases listed : State 
of Wisconsin vs. . In such cases the District Attorney rep- 
resents the State. 

(d) The State Superintendent of Public Instruction has charge 
of the supervision of the public schools of the state. (See Article X.) 

(6) Boards and Commissions. — In addition to the constitutional 
departments mentioned above the State has several boards and commis- 
sions appointed by the governor. The most important of these are: 

(a) Board of Control 

(b) State Board of Health 

(c) Boaid of Normal Regents 

(d) Board of University Regents 

(e) Department of Agriculture 

(f) Department of Insurance 

(g) Railroad Commission 

(h) Dairy and Pood Commiscion 
(i) Industrial Commission 
(j) Conservation Commission 

Information regarding these boards and commissions, their duties, 
etc., is given in the Blue Book. 

(7) Article VII. The judiciary. The supreme court consists 
of 7 justices one of which is chief justice. It holds its sessions in the 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 301 

east wing of the Capitol. The state is divided into judicial circuits. 
How many? (See Blue Book.) In what circuit are you? Who is cir- 
cuit judge? When does he hold court in your county? Who is the 
clerk of the court? When are judges elected? Why? 

This topic should, if possible, be taken up when the circuit court is in 
session and portions of it should also be touched upon at the spring 
election. 

The courts have two functions, — to interpret and to apply the laws. 
If there is doubt as to the meaning or the constitutionality of a law, a 
case embodying the point in question is brought before the supreme 
court, and the interpretation of this law is given or its constitution- 
ality or unconstitutionality declared. The courts apply the law when 
they fix penalties for violations. 

(8) Article X. Education. The state superintendent. The 
county superintendent. The supervising teacher. Make a list of the 
different kinds of schools in Wisconsin from the district school to the 
university. 

How common schools are supported — (a) by local taxes raised at 
school meeting; (b) by "county money" (taxes levied by county board 
of supervisors upon each town, village and city); (c) by money dis- 
tributed by the state ("state money"), (1) from school fund income, 
(2) from tax amounting to seven-tenths of a mill on all the taxable 
property of the state ($200,000 of which amount comes from license 
fees and taxes paid by corporations; (d) by special funds in the form 
of special aids to various schools. The school fund amounts at the pres- 
ent time to about $4,000,000 and the annual interest accruing is about 
$200,000. Who pays the state school tax? 

By consolidation of school districts is meant the union of two or 
more districts to form one. What might be the advantages and the 
disadvantages from such a procedure in your locality? 

(9) Article XII. Call attention to the fact that the constitution 
can be changed and that this article describes the method. Have them 
note that the process is cumbersome and that it usually takes several 
years to bring about a change. 

k. United States Government. Before the pupils come to this 
topic have them read the book entitled Uncle Sam's Secrets, if it is in 
the school library; or some similar book, such as Uncle Sam's Miracles 
or Uncle Sam Wonder Worker. 

How many States are there? Are all the people of a nation inter- 
ested in some things? Railroads and rivers run through several states. 
(Compare cities in the county.) Disputes arise between people of the 
different States. The whole nation must deal with other nations. All 
the people own the vacant land of the nation. All use the same kind 
of money. All wish to send letters into the other states and to other 
countries. 

Take up in detail the outline suggested on page 253. ^Some of the 
problems that confronted the men in the Constitutional Convention 
were the following: 



302 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

Some of the thirteen states were large; others small. The large 
states wanted the representation in Congress to be 'biased upon popula- 
tion, while the small states wanted equal representation from all 
states. The result was a compromise by which there was to be equal 
representation in the senate, and representation according to popula- 
tion in the house of representatives. 

In determining the number of representatives in the house some of 
the states wanted to, count the slaves while others objected. The result 
was a compromise by which three-fifths of the slaves were to be 
counted. 

. Some of the states desired to have the importation of slaves con- 
tined, while others wanted it prohibited. Again, some of the states de- 
sired to have the national government have complete control over the 
foreign commerce, while this was opposed by others. The result was 
a compromise by which CoQgreK:.s iiliould have control over foreign ami 
interstate commerce but providei) (.hat no law prohibiiing the importa- 
tion of slaves should be passed before 1808. 

Follow the same general directions for the study of the United States 
Constitution as are given for the State constitution. Require memoriz- 
ing of few, if any, clauses; place emphasis upon the understanding of 
the main facts about the government that intelligent citizens are ex- 
pected to know including some topics not mentioned in the Constitu- 
tion. Omit, or merely read, clauses that do not give information upon 
the following outline: 

(1) Preamble. What is a preamble? What six reasons 
are given for estab^lishing the constitution? When was the constitution 
adopted? How many states had to ratify it? When did the new gov- 
ernment under the constitution go into effect? See also preamble of 
State Constitution. 

(2) Article I. Composition of Congress. Have pupils ex- 
amine the pictures of the Capitol building, of the house of representa- 
tives and the senate. How many members in each house? Make a list 
of the members in each house from Wisconsin. Have the pupils ex- 
amine a map of Wisconsin showing the congressional districts. How 
many counties in your district? (See Blue Book.) Election of repre- 
sentatives and of senators. The senators were elected by the state leg- 
islatures until the adoption of the 17th amendment. Who in Wisconsin 
can vote for representatives? In what states can women vote for rep- 
resentatives? (See World Almanac) Name the presiding officer in 
each house. Why have committees in Congress? The doings of Con- 
gress are published in the Congressional Record. How bills become 
laws. Among the important powers of Congress are the following: 

(a) Taxation. How does the United States government se- 
cure most of its revenue? What is the tariff? 

(b) Borrowing money. United States bonds. Treasury 
notes. 

(c) Commerce. 

(d) Naturalization. (See also p. 29 5.) 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 30S 

(e) Coinage. All the money that we have is made by the 
United States g-overnment. 'The mint. 

(f) Counterfeiting-. A person who makes bogus money is 
punished by the United States government. 

(g) Post offices. Postal savings banks and the parcel post 
were introduced by acts of congress. 

(h) War. Congress is the only authority that can declare 
war against a foreign nation. How large is the standing army? The 
navy? 

(i) Patents and copyrights. 

(j) Clause 18 of section 8 is known as the "elastic clause." 
Why? Note that section 9 enumerates several things that congress 
cannot do. Why were these restrictions put into the constitution? 
^fote also that in section 10 there are enumerated some things which 
the states cannot do. Why do you suppose these provisions were 
inserted? 

(3) Article II. The president and vice president. Terms 
and qualifications. How nominated and elected. The White House. A 
list of cabinet officers (See Blue Book). General duties of each depart- 
ment. (Secretary of State — foreign affairs. Secretary of Treasury — 
national finances. Attorney general — lawyer for the United States and 
legal advisor of the president and cabinet members.) 

Powers and duties of the president: Commander in chief; message 
to Congress; pardoning power; appointing power; convening Congress; 
making treaties. 

The president may be removed from office by impeachment. The 
house of representatives impeaches or makes the charge and the sen- 
ate acts as a court in trying the impeachment. The most noted im- 
peachment case in the history of the country was that of President 
Johnson. 

(4) Article III. United States courts. How do the judges 
obtain their positions? What are their terms of office? How many 
judges in the supreme court? How many circuit courts are there in 
the United States? In which circuit is Wisconsin? What other 
states in this circuit? How many district courts in the United States? 
How many of these courts in Wisconsin? If a person commits an 
offense against the United States law, making counterfeit money, for 
instance, he is arrested by a United States marshal and tried in a 
United States court. In Wisconsin there are two United States dis- 
trict courts. Answers to some of the above questions may be ob- 
tained from the Blue Book. Do not require pupils to memorize the 
facts studied. One value of this exercise is in the training the chil- 
dren get in finding information. 

(5) Article IV. Are there any territories at the present 
time? If a person commits a crime in one state and flees into an- 
other state can he be brought back for trial? How? If a crime is 
committed on Lake Michigan where may the criminal be tried? 

(6) Article V. Note that article V deals with the method 
of changing the constitution. Do not require the children to mem- 
orize the method. How many amendments have been made to the 



304 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

United States constitution? The first ten are known as the "Bill of 
Rights" and were adopted soon after the government was established. 
The twelfth amendment was adopted as a result of disputed election 
of 1800 when Jefferson and Burr were the candidates. The thirteenth, 
fourteenth and fifteenth amendments were adopted after the Civil 
War and the sixteenth and seventeenth were adopted recently. 

(7) Article VI. What is meant by the "supreme law of the 
land?" 



III. SUGGESTIONS WITH REFERENCE TO THE OUGANIZA- 
TION OF A SOCIETY OR CLUB 

1. Have pupils seated as conveniently as possible. 

2. Tell them that business is brought before an assembly by a 
motion or by the presentation of a communication. 

3. Teach them how to make motions. A person must rise, address 
the chair by saying, "Mr. Chairman." The chairman "recognizes" 
the member by speaking his name thus "giving him the fioor." When 
the member has been recognized he makes the motion saying, "I 
move that," etc., or "I make a motion that," etc. 

4. The next step is to have the motion seconded. This can be done 
by any member without rising and without addressing the chair. 

5. The chairman then states the question by saying, "It is moved 
and seconded," etc., and it can then be discussed. After discussion 
it is put to a vote. One form is the following: All in favor of the 
motion say aye; all opposed, no. The ayes have it, and the motion 
is carried. 

6. After this instruction has been given, the children should be 
given considerable practice in making motions. The larger ones 
should also be given opportunity to act as chairman and put the mo- 
tions. The motions that have been taken up thus far are called Prin- 
cipal Motions. 

7. Subsidiary motions. After the children have gained facility 
in making and putting motions, and in using the parliamentary terms 
required in this preliminary work, the Subsidiary Motions may be 
taken up. Of these there are seven and only one should be intro- 
duced in any one lesson and then practiced upon until the language 
of it is mastered and the meaning clear. Then subsidiary motions 
are all applied to principal motions and the different methods of dis- 
posing of them or modifying or changing them. 

a. Motion to lay en the table. This motion may be applied to 
any principal motion and when made is undebatable and must be put 
at once. The form is "I move that the question be laid on the table." 
This motion, if carried, disposes of the main question temporarily. 
Any time the assembly desires, it can revive the main question by 
having a motion made "to take the question from the table." Fre- 
quently this motion i^ used unfairly to kill a measure. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 305 

b. The previous question. The purpose of this motion is to cut 
off further debate and put the main question to a vote at once. The 
form is "1 call for the previous question." When it is seconded the 
chairman says, "The previous question on the motion to, etc., is called 
for. As many as are in favor of ordering the previous question on 
that motion will rise. Those opposed will rise." A two-thirds vote 
is necessary to carry the question. If two-thirds vote in favor, the 
chairman says: There being two-thirds in favor of the motion, it is 
carried and we shall now vote on the main question. All in favor, 
etc., say aye; opposed, no." 

c. Motion to limit oi* extend limits of debate. This motion is 
not likely to be needed by the children and can be omitted. 

d. Motion to postpone to a certain time. If this motion is 
carried the main questions becomes "orders of the day" whenever 
that time comes to which it is postponed. Forms for this motion differ, 
depending upon circumstances. 

e. Motion to commit or refer to a conunittee. Frequently it is 
wise to get a small 'number of specially qualified persons to investi- 
gate the merits of a proposition. If referred, the subject is brought 
before the assembly again in the committee's report. 

f. Motion to amend. An amendment may involve (1) adding 
words to the motion; (2) striking words from a motion; (3) substi- 
tution. An amendment may be amended but not an amendment to 
an amendment. Note the form of the motion as given in the model 
on page 267. 

g. Motion to postpone indefinitely. This motion, if carried, 
prevents the question from being introduced again during that ses- 
sion. 

(For a discussion of the subsidiary motions see Robert's Rules 
of Order (Revised) p. 104-153.) 

8. Organization of a school society. As soon as the children have 
learned to make motions and to put them an organization may be 
effected. Have them elect a president and secretary. A program 
committee may also be appointed and other committees may be ap- 
pointed for special purposes from time to time. A short program 
may be given after the "business" meeting or the parliamentary prac- 
tice. For this practice suggest topics which they may use as sub- 
jects for motions. Guide and instruct them but do not fail to have 
them get the practice. After some time a committee may be ap- 
pointed to draw up a constitution using the following outline as a 
guide: 

Preamble 

Article I. Name 

Article II. Members 

Article III. Officers 

Article IV. Meetings 

Article V. Amendments 



3 06 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

9. Incidental motions. A few incidental motions may be taken 
up with- the pupils if there is time and the pupils are ready for them : 

a. Questions of order and appeal. It is the chairman's duty 
to enforce all rules of the assembly and to decide parliamentary ques- 
tions. Every member has also a right to insist upon the enforce- 
ment of the rules. In case a person observes a violation of a rule 
he rises and says without waiting for recognition: "Mr. Chairman, 
I rise to a point of order." This can be done even while another 
person has the floor. The chairman asks the member to "state his 
point," after which he renders his decision by saying, "The point is 
sustained" or "the point is not sustained." 

If a member is dissatisfied with the ruling of the chairman, he may 
rise and say, "Mr. Chairman, I appeal from the decision of the chair." 
When the appeal is seconded, the chairman puts the question: "Shall 
the decision of the chair stand as the judgment of the assembly?" 
If not overruled by a majority, the decision stands. 

b. The suspension of the rules requires a two-thirds vole. 

c. Objection to the consideration of a question. It must be 
made immediately after a subject has been introduced. This does not 
require a second but needs a two-thirds vote to be carried. Why have 
this provision in parliamentary practice? Why so large a vote? 

d. Call for a division of the house. The call may be made with- 
out obtaining the floor and does not require a second. It is usually 
made after a vote has been taken in which the result seems question- 
able and is for the purpose of ascertaining how many voted on each 
side of the question. Arising vote is usually taken to settle the matter. 

10. Privileged motions 

a. To fix the time to which the assembly shall adjourii. 

b. To adjourn. 

c. Questions of privilege; rights and privileges of members. 

d. Call for the orders of the day. This does not need a second. 
If carried, the subject considered at that time is cut off from discus- 
sion at once and what has been specifically assigned for discussion 
at that time is taken up. 

11. Miscellaneous motions 

a.. To reconsider. This motion can be made on the same 
day the motion was acted upon or the day after. It must be made 
by a member who voted on the prevailing side. If carried, it brings 
the original question before the assembly for further discussion and 
vote. 

b. To rescind." This motion is used when it is too late to 
reconsider. If carried, the effect is the same as if no motion has been 
made. 

12. Illustration. The folloMing is given Xo show how the sub- 
sidiary motions are used. Mr. C. is chairman and Mr. S, secretary. 

Mr. A. — (rising-) Mr. Chairman. 
Mr. C. — Mr. A. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 307 



Mr. A. — I make a motion that this society have a Fourth of July 
picnic. 

Mr, B. — (without rising-) I second the motion. 

Mr. C. — The motion has been made and seconded that this society 
have a Fourth of July picnic. Are there any remarks? 

Mr. M. — I have no objection to the picnic, but we have plenty of 
time to consider this matter, and as there are some things which 
must be considered before 9 o'clock tonight, I move that this ques- 
tion be laid on the table. 

Mr. O. — I second the motion. 

Mr. C. — It has been moved that the question relating to the Fourth 
of July picnic be laid on the table. (Undebatable). All in favor say 
aye; opposed, no. Ayes have it. Motion is laid on the table. 

Mr. Y. — Mr. Chairman. 

Mr. C. — Mr. Y. 

Mr. Y. — It is necessary for us to decide in the early part of the 
evening whether we shall have Mr. D. or Mr. E. to deliver the address 
at our meeting next week. I therefore make the motion that we se- 
lect Mr. D. as our speaker. 

Mr. A. — I second the motion. 

Mr. C. It has been moved and seconded, etc. Any remarks? 
(Here followed a discussion which became very prolonged and it was 
getting near the time when a decision had to be taken.) 

Mr. X. — Mr. Chairman. 

Mr. C. — Mr. X. 

Mr. X. — I call for the previous question. 

Mr. M. — I second the call. 

Mr. C. — The previous question has been called for. As many as 
are in favor of ordering the previous question on the main motion will 
rise; all opposed, rise; (18 votes for; 6 against); the motion is car- 
ried. (Two-thirds vote.) 

All in favor of selecting Mr. D. as our speaker will say aye; opposed, 
no. Motion carried (Main question). 

Mr. L. — Mr. Chairman. 

Mr. C. — Mr. L. 

Mr, L. — I move that Mr. O. be instructed to communicate with 
Mr. D. at once by 'phone so we may know definitely if he is available. 

Mr. M. — I second the motion. 

Mr. C. — It has been etc. Any remarks? . . . All in favor say 
ay.e; opposed, no. Motion carried. Mr, O. is hereby instructed to 
communicate with Mr, D, and report the information to the meeting, 
(Mr, O. leaves.) 

Mr. R. — Mr. C. 

Mr. C. — Mr. R. 

Mr. R. — I move that a committee of three be appointed to make 
the special arrangements needed for our next meeting. 

Mr. S. — I second the motion. 

Mr. C. — It has been etc. Any remarks? 

Mr. A. — Mr. C. 

Mr. C. — Mr. A. 

Mr. A. — I move to amend the motion by substituting f.ve for three. 

Mr. N. — I second the amendment. 

Mr. C. — The motion has been amended . . . Any remarks? 

Mr. T. — I believe that it is not right to expect only five to do all 
the work connected with this meeting. Let us all help. Therefore, 
I move to amend the amendment by giving the five the right to draft 
as many members as may be needed to help them. 

Mr. U. — I second the last amendment. 

Mr. C. — The amendment hag been amended , . . Any re- 
marks? (After a few members had spoken the vote was put). We 



3 08 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



shall first vote on the last amendment. All who are in favor of 
say ay.e ; opposed, no. Amendment carried. We shall now 
vote on the first amendment as amended. All in favor of substituting 
itve for three and g-ive them the power . . . st»v aye; opposed, 
no. The amendment as amended is carried. We shall now vote on 
the original motion as amended. All who are in favor of . . . 
say aye; opposed, no. The original motion as amended is carried. 

Mr. P. — Mr. C. 

Mr. C. — Mr. F. 

Mr. P. — I move that the society have no meetings during the sum- 
mer months. 

Mr. Z. — I second the motion. 

Mr. C. — It has been . . . Any remarks? 

Mr. M. — I move that the question be postponed indefinitely. 

Mr. S. — I, second the motion. 

Mr. C- — It has been moved . . . Any repiarks? (Several take 
part in discussion.) All in favor of indefinite postponement of this 
question say aye; opposed, no. Carried. 

Mr. P. — I call for a division of the house. 

Mr. C. — A division is called for; those in favor will rise. Those op- 
posed wll rise. The motion is carried by a vote of 12 to 11. 

RECESS 

Mr. C. — The meeting will come to order. 

Mr. O. — Mr. C. 

Mr. C. — Mr. O. 

Mr. C— I learned from Mr. D. that it is impossible for him to come 
to our next meeting as he has another engagement. Therefore, I 
move that we reconsider the vote on the motion regarding the choice 
of speakers. 

Mr. S. — I second the motion. 

Mr. C. — It has been moved . , . Any remarks? 

Mr. A.— Mr. C. 

Mr. C. — Mr. A. 
Mr. A. — I rise for information. Did the gentleman who made the 
motion vote on the prevailing side? 

Mr. C. — He did — If there are no more remarks we shall vote on 
the question. All in favor say aye; opposed, no. Motion is carried. 
The question regarding our speaker is now open for discussion. 

Mr. M. — Mr. C. 

Mr. C. — Mr. M. 

Mr. M. — I move to amend the motion by substituting Mr. E. for 
Mr. D. 

Mr. N. — I second the amendment. 

Mr. C. — An amendment has been made to substitute Mr. E. for 
Mr. D. Any remarks? . . . All in favor of the amendment say 
aye; opposed, no. Amendmerit carried. We shall now vote on the 
original motion as amended. All in favor say aye; opposed, no. Car- 
ried. 

Mr. A. — Mr. C. 

Mr. C.^Mr. A. 

Mr. A.-^I make a motion that we have no meetings during the sum- 
m.er months. 

Mr. C. — The gentleman is out of order. That motion has been made 
before during the session and it was postponed indefinitely. 

Mr. I. — Mr. C. 

Mr. C. — Mr. I. 

Mr. I. — I move that the question of having a Pourth of July picnic 
be taken from the table. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 309 



Mr. A. — I second the motion. 

Mr. C. — It has been moved . . . (Undebatable) All in favor 
say oy.e; opposed, no. The motion is carried and the question is be- 
fore the assembly. 

Mr. U.— I move that this matter be referred to a committee com- 
posed of the treasurer and two other members appointed by the 
chair, said committee to report at our meeting two weeks from to- 
night. 

Mr. V. — I second the motion. 

Mr. C- — It has been moved . . . (Several take part in the 
discussion.) All in favor of referring this to a committee say aye; 
opposed, no. The motion is carried. As members of the committee 
I appoint Mr, U. and Mr. M. 

Mr. B. — Mr. C. 

Mr. C. — Mr. B. 

Mr. B. — -I believe that we ought to have a lecture course in the city. 
Therefore, I make a motion that a committee be appointed to con- 
sider the advisability of undertaking this matter and report next week. 

Mr. Q. — I second the motion. 

Mr. C. — It has been . . . Any remarks? 

Mr. S. — Mr. C. 

Mr. C. — Mr. S. 

Mr. S. — I think it is early in the year to take up this matter, and 
besides we do not expect to have a business meeting next week. I 
believe it is better to wait until Mr. E. has been here as he will be 
able to give use some advice in this matter. I therefore move that 
the consideration of the question be postponed until our meeting two 
weeks from tonight. 

Mr. T. — I second the motion. 

Mr. C. — It has been . . . Remarks? . . . Only remarks 
regarding wisdom of postponement were allowed.) All in favor of 
the postponement say aye; opposed, no. Motion carried. 

Mr. A.— Mr. C. 

Mr. C. — Mr. A. 

Mr. A. — I move that we adjourn. 

Mr. N. — I second the motion. 

Mr. C. — It has been . . . (not debatable). All in favor say 
aye; opposed, no. The motion is carried and the meeting is ad- 
journed. 



IV. TESTS FOR GRADUATION 

1. Pupils finishing the common school should have definite knowl- 
edge of the principal features of the United States government and 
the government of Wisconsin. 

2. They should be able to use the constitutions in finding answers 
to questions of reasonable difficulty. 

3. They should he able to use the Blue Book, World Almanac, and 
other reference books on government in the library. 

4. They should have a knowledge of the main features of the local 
governments and be able to look up detailed information of a particu- 
lar nature. 

5. They should know the elements of parliamentary practice and be 
able to participate in meetings when simple usages are practiced. 

6. They should have the ability to read the newspapers intelligently 
and report on current events. 



310 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



V. REFERENCES 

1. References for teachers and institutions that train teachers 
Bureau of education bulletin. The teaching of community civics. 

Bulletin No. 23, 1915. 
Cabot & Andrews. A course in citizenship. (T) 
Charters. Teaching the common branches, p. 266 — 72. (T) 
Kendall & Mlrick. How to teach the fundamental subjects, p. 

265-88. Houghton. 
Rice. Lessons on the use of the school library, p. 19, 55, 79, 95—6, 

Issued by the State Superintendent, Madison Wis. 
Robert. Rules of order; revised. (T) 

2. References for pupils 
Blue Book 

County board proceedings 

Dole. The young citizen. (T) 

Field & Nearing. Community civics. (T) 

Gillett. George Anderson of Wisconsin. A. D. S. Gillett, State 
Normal School, Superior, Wis. 

Hoxie. How the people rule. (T) 

Kinsman. Local governments in Wisconsin. (T) 

Pamphlet on local government issued by county (if any). 

World Almanac 

Textbooks. It is also well to have a copy of a textbook, in addi- 
tion to the one used in class, for reference on certain topics. 



MUSIC 311 



MUSIC 



I. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 

1. Definite ends to be attained in school music training. While 
the teacher should have in mind the general objects of music train- 
ing, such as making the school happier, training and developing 
the emotions, bringing beauty into the schoolroom, disciplining the 
mind, etc., she should center her attention especially upon the four 
following objects: 

a. Committing 100 songs to memory. Fifty of these should 
be selected because of their permanent value throughout life. They 
should be songs which the child will enjoy singing while he is in 
school and after he leaves it and which will consequently be suit- 
able for singing by him, his brothers and sisters, his father and 
mother, and in fact any social group. The remaining 50 songs 
should be selected from that collection of material designed espe- 
cially for the growing child which is of great value for- a few years, 
but which, like the rhymes and stories of childhood, is left behind 
as the child grows. Carefully worked out lists of these songs are 
given below. 

b. Beautiful tone. The child should be trained to appreciate 
beautiful tone in singing and to approximate this in his own sing- 
ing. A large part of the value of songs comes from the tone with 
which they are sung. Definite directions for obtaining beautiful 
tone quality will be given later. 

c. Listening to good music. There are now so many available 
means of obtaining good music that we may expect listening to 
beautiful music to be part of every child's experience. 

d. Elementary technical training. We should help the chil- 
dren to gain command of the simpler technical elements of music 
so that they may be able, by the time they leave school, to read 
the melody at least of an ordinary hymn tune. 

2. Suggestions for teachmg songs by rote 

a. A'alue of teaching by rote. Until children learn to read mu- 
sic by note, the songs which they learn must be acquired by imita- 
tion; that is, by rote. This is a common method of learning not 
only in music but in every other branch of study, and is important 
enough to merit careful consideration. No subject so well as mu- 
sic can give the valuable training which comes frorn the acute ob- 



312 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

servations of a discriminating ear. The teacher should therefore 
strive by means of this rote song teaching not only to please the 
children with the songs, but to make them observe more accurately 
in all of their hearing. Make the learning of a song something 
of a game in quick attention and accurate retention. The children 
should have pleasure and pride in remembering things that they 
hear only once or twice. 

b. Songs not all to be taught in one day. While the direc- 
tions given below apply largely to the teaching of a song on _the 
day that the children hear it for the first time, it is also desirable 
to extend this period of quick attention and accurate retention to 
more than one day. Sometimes it will be desirable to sing a song 
once or twice on one day, then not attempt to have the children 
learn it until the next day. By this means the teacher will find 
that the song is more easily learned than if it were all studied 
the same day and, moreover, that the interest of the children is 
maintained for a longer period. 

c. Selection of proper gongs. The teacher who wishes to teach 
a rote song, should first of all select something that is of interest 
to the children not only in a general way, but, if possible, some- 
thing which ha-s a particular interest at the time that the song is 
taught. For instance, at the beginning of the winter, teach a snow 
song; in the spring, a song of flowers or birds; at a period of re- 
membering great men, such as February with its birthdays of Lin- 
coln and Washington, patriotic songs. In general, try to make the 
songs appropriate to the season. 

d. The teacher's xM'eparatlon for teaching a song. Prepare all 
of your songs at least a week before you intend to use them. Learn 
them by heart so that you can sing them without a book before 
you. This will enable you to look squarely into the eyes of the 
children as you are singing, and also to make such movements with 
your hands and such expressions with your face as will help to con- 
vey the meaning; in other words, to tell the story of the song. In 
preparing yourself for this singing to the children, read the text 
carefully to get the thought expressed; study the melody until it Is 
memorized and you can sing it without the piano accompaniment; 
practice the phrasing and the breathing so that you will have it 
exactly right when you sing it before the children. You are train- 
ing your children to observe accurately and to imitate closely, and 
you may be sure that there is nothing they will more quickly ob- 
serve and more carefully imitate than any mistakes you may make 
in the first performance. 

e. Prepai-atory material. Before singing the song the first 
time, it is usually well, unless the song is a very simple one, to 
tell something about the contents of the song. This may be done 
by a little story, by a picture or by some other means particularly 
appropriate. Make these introductory remarks as short as pos- 
sible, so the children will be trained to get the story from the song, 



MUSIC 313 

rather than from the story which the teacher tells beforehand. If 
there are difficult words, these should be drilled upon first so that 
the children will be prepared for them. After the teacher has sung 
the song once or twice the children should have an opportunity to 
ask questions or give their ideas about the song. 

f. Summary of steps 

(1) 'Creating the atmosphere and preparing the mind for 
the song, as has just been described.; 

(2) Songs sung through by the teacher from memory. 

(3) The contents of the song talked about. 

(4) The words repeated once in order that each word be 
distinctly understood. 

(5) The song sung through again by the teacher once, 
twice, or as many times as are necessary in order that the children 
may get it as a vrhole. 

(6) When the children begin singing parts of the song, al- 
though usually it may be found necessary to begin with the first 
phrase, there are times when the children may quite as well, if 
not better, begin with some other phrase, especially if there is a 
refrain, or a part that occurs more than once. Train the children 
to watch for the repetition of a phrase, because by this means, they 
are greatly increasing their power of learning the song. The chil- 
dren should sing their . part alone. If they make a mistake, the 
teacher should ask them to listen again while she sings, and then 
should allow them to try again alone. Continue this process until 
they can sing their part correctly alone. 

(7) Continue two phrases; that is ask the children to sing 
twice as much at a time. Continue this process of combining until 
the children have learned the entire song and can sing it unaided. 

(8) If a piano or organ is available the song may now, for tJie 
first time, be sung with an accompaniment. 

g. Long pauses to be avoided. After the children begin to 
sing phrases there should be no long pauses between the teacher's 
singing and the children's singing. After the teacher has sung a 
phrase, the children should sing it back with no loss of time, keep- 
ing the rhythm all the while. The teacher sings the next phrase 
and the children sing it after her, and so on. She continues con- 
necting phrases with the children responding until the whole song 
is learned and the rhythm has been kept throughout. This is nec- 
essary in order to avoid the children's obtaining distorted notions 
in regard to the song as a whole. 

h. Importance of correct rhythm. The correct rhythm of the 
song should be used even at the very beginning whether the song 
is fast or slow. Moreover, if the children sing a phrase incor- 
rectly, it is better for the teacher to repeat the phrase a number 
of times rather rapidly, if such is the prescribed speed, instead of sing- 
ing it once or twice slowly. 

i. DeA'ices for malnlaining interest. Keep up interest in your 
teaching by skillfully alternating easy and difficult material, songs 



314 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

that will appeal to the small children and those that are especially 
for the older ones, or for girls and boys, respectively. See that you 
have songs that will excite immediate interest well distributed 
among those which the children will have to study a time before 
they like them. In reviewing songs, do not do so indiscriminately. 
Arrange to drop certain songs for certain parts of the year. Re- 
turn to them now and then as the children call for them; but, do 
not continue, for instance, singing a song of Thanksgiving through- 
out the entire year. In order to maintain this freshness of in- 
terest it may even be well in ungraded schools or in schools in 
which there are a number of grades together to arrange the mate- 
rial so that there is a cycle of two or even three years. With the 
large number of songs that we have on our list, such an arrange- 
ment is possible. 

j. Antiphonal singing. With old songs and occasionally will 
new ones devise new ways of singing them. Reference is made 
here not only to the expression (the loudness and softness, and 
Buch other variations as are indicated in the music itself or are 
brought out by the various means of teaching rote songs), but 
rather to the distribution of the songs to various groups of pupils. 
While as a general rule all of the pupils should sing all of tho 
songs, it will be found that interest will be heightened if there are 
certain songs which are sung by the little ones only, and certain 
others that are sung only by the older pupils. Some songs, moreover, 
lend themselves to divisions within themselves. Let the boys sing 
one part; the girls another; or, let the division be between the 
teacher and the pupils. These are all devices,, (so called antiphonal 
singing) which orignated in the churches that divided the choir 
into two sections (one on each side of the church), and had the 
anthem consist of portions sung first by one side, and then by the 
other, and then by both. The teacher who makes a careful study 
of devices of this nature will soon find that she can interest even 
the older boys who so frequently present a difficult problem. En- 
list their aid by getting them to select songs and by giving simple 
parts which they can sing effectively. Hardly any boy will resist 
the opportunity of singing the first part of "Old Black Joe". 



II. WORK TO BE DONE 

1. A list of 50 songs of j)ernianent value for community singing. 

The Music Supervisors' National Conference has published a pam- 
phlet entitled "Fifty-five Songs and Choruses for Community Sing- 
ing" (C. 'C. Birchard and Co., 221 Columbus Avenue, Boston, Mass , 
price, ten cents). Although intended primarily for adult singers, 
the larger number of these songs can be taught to children in the 
grade schools, although a few, if the children go on into the high 
school, might better be delayed until that period. Moreover, al- 



MUSIC 



315 



most all of the songs are suitable for children of the fifth grade and 
above. It will be found advantageous in many cases to teach some 
of the songs even to the smallest children. 

As a guide to the order in which the songs may best be in- 
troduced, they are apportioned below according to the usual scheme 
of the eight grades. This arrangement will serve to indicate de- 
grees of difficulty and will help in distributing the songs according 
to the growing interest and ability of the pupils. In ungraded 
schools or schools which have ' different divisions from those here 
given, the teacher will use the list as a general guide to her pro- 
cedure. The list is to be considered as a cumulative one, that is, 
the songs given for any one grade are to be repeated in all the suc- 
ceeding igrades. 

It will be noted that practically all of the material is of the folk 
song type. Long experience has proved that this is the material 
which will stand the test of time and constant use. These songs 
are the winnowings from thousands. The teacher may be assured 
that in giving any of the material listed her, she is not wasting 
her time or that of the pupils. 



Grade I 

America (1st stanza) 
Yankee Doodle 
My Bonnie 

Grade n 

America (2nd stanza) 
Old Folks at Home (1st stanza) 
Holy Night (Stille Nacht) 
Row, row, row your boat 
(Not as a round) 

Grade HI 

America (3rd & 4th stanzas) 

Old Folks at home (2nd & 3rd st.) 

Lightly Row 

Flow gently, sweet Afton 

Deck the hall with boughs of holly 

Round: Row, row, row your boat 



Grade IV 



2nd. 



Star Spangled Banner (1st, 

and last stanzas) 
Dixie (1st and last stanzas) 
Blue bells of Scotland (3 stanzas) 
The First Nowell 
Come, Thou Almighty King 
Home Sweet Home 
Round: Are you sleeping 

Gmde V 

Columbia the gem of the ocean 
Battle hymn of the Republic 
Santa Lucia 

Onward Christian Soldiers 
Old black Joe 

Round: O. how lovely is the even- 
ing 



Grade VI 

Hail Columbia 
Auld lang syne 
Loreley 

Old Kentucky home 
Nearer, my God, to Thee '. 

Nancy Lee 

How can I Leave thee 
Round: Good night to you all 

Grade VII 

Speed our republic (Keller's Amer- 
ican Hymn) 

Merry Life 

Anvil Chorus 

Believe me if all those endearing 
young charms 

Massa's in the cold, cold Ground 

Annie Laurie 

Good night, ladies 

Tenting on the old camp ground 

Lead kindly light 

Lost chord 

Round: Early to bed 

Grade VIII 

America the beautiful 
Sweet and low 
Juanita 

Hark the herald angels sing 
Love's old sweet song 
Stars of the summer night 
Out on the deep 

Drink to me only with thine eyes 
P'oldier's Farewell 
Round: Merrily, merrily greet the 
morn 



316 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

2. A list of 50 educational songs selected from the rote song 
books suggested under V, referenece books. (See page 281.) The songs 
listed below are typical of the high class of material which should be 
given to children. While these are not the only good songs, they rep- 
resent standards which the teacher should constantly apply. Shun the 
ephemeral songs which occur so often in the educational periodicals. 
Most of them are poor, and even when they are good, they are inferior 
to the tried and tested songs that are given in this list. Time is pre- 
cious. It ought not to hp wasted upon poor songs. 

Every school should, when possible, possess all of the ten volumes 
listed under the Reference Books. No single book contains all the good 
songs, and a teacher who wishes to give only the best material should 
not restrict herself to one or two collections. There , will be schools, 
however, that are not able to purchase all of the books recommended. 
It is possible to find ten good songs in any one of the books mentioned. 
Few books contain more than ten songs which are adapted to varying 
needs of the schoolroom. In making a final list for any one year, the 
teacher will be guided by her individual preference and by the material 
which is available. (For complete titles of the books, publishers, etc., 
see references on page 281.) 



Modem music primer 

Left right 

Little gypsy dandelion 

The dairy maids 

Dancing song (p. 23) 

Sleighing song 

When the winter's over 

Dancing song (p. 110) 

When the little children sleep 

The woodpecker 

Jack Frost 

Elliott's Mother Goose set to music 

Little Bo-Peep 

Hickory, Dickory, Dock 

Little child and the star 

Mistress Mary 

Little Jack Horner 

I love little Pussy 

The King of France 

Twinkle, twinkle, little star 

Baa, baa, black sheep 

Is John Smith within 

Children's songs of long ag:o 

The archer 

The fox and the grapes 

The harvest home 

How doth the busy bee 

Lavender's blue 

The little man and the little duck 

The mill 

The strawberry girl 

The swing 

When the rosy morn appearing 



Bentley primer 

The fiddle 

Dancing song 

Cradle song 

Who has seen the wind 

Wing Foo 

Jack Frost 

Honk, honk 

Santa Claus 

The clock 

My old Dan 

Gilbert's 100 folk songs 

A hunting we will go 

The ash grove 

The British grenadiers 

The Campbell's are comin' 

Duke Marlborough 

Indian song 

The scarlet sarafan 

O dear, what can the matter be 

May breezes 

Tic-e-tic-e-toc 

Gaynor I 

The bird's nest 

The land of nod 

The little shoemaker 

Rub-a-dub-dub 

The Brownies 

Harvest of squirrel and honey bee 

Tracks in the snow 

Jack Frost 

The owl 

Jjittle yellow dandelion 



MUSIC 317 



Hofer's Popular foUc games and Teachers' edition for elementary 

dances grades of New educational 

I see you music course 

Swedish Gymnastic dance tvt«+„^^»„ „^^^ ^;„i,+ 

^, , . , Nature s good night 

Blekmg dance 

Rabbit in the hollow 

English May game 



Boating 

Song-story: Brownies' umbrella 
Tx T X ^ Spring song 

Italian peasant dance Thanksgiving song 



Danish hornpipe 
Twining the wreath 
Danish ring game 
German klapp dance 



The little dustman 

The icicle lesson 

The sea 

Song of the March wind 

Winter lullaby 



Folk songs, chanteys, and singing 

games Teachers' manual — progi'cssive 

music series — book I 

The tree in the wood 

As I was going to Banbury ^^od morning 

Dabbling in the dew The postman 

The wraggle taggle gypsies, O Cherries 

Oats and beans Lady Bug 

London bridge The gypsy peddler 

When I was a young girl Soldier boys 

The Roman soldiers Betty and Billy 

A-roving Playing soldier 

O Johnny, come to Hilo False Alarm 

In wooden shoes 

3. What to do in addition to rote singing. The teacher who has 
taught her children a large number of good rote songs and who has 
frequent singing of them with a good tone and happy participation has 
done a large portion of what may usually be expected in the commcn 
schools. So much in addition to this, however, has been accomplished 
in schools in which the music has been carefully planned and ade- 
quately taught, with a sufficient amount of time each day, that this 
outline would be incomplete if it did not indicate further steps which 
the capable teacher will endeavor to take. Many of the suggestions that 
follow have direct bearing upon the beauty of the rote singing; others, 
have to do with that important part in music education, learning to 
read music. 

a. Breathing exercises. One minute devoted to the right kind 
of breathing exercises at the beginning, of the music period will not only 
help the singing, but will invigorate the children for all of their work. 
Fill the room with fresh air before the music lesson. Have the chil- 
dren rise, stand on the balls of their feet, shoulders erect, chest high. 
Keep tension out of the neck by having the head thrown heavily from 
one side to the other. Hold the breath for ten or twenty seconds, or a 
sufficient time to give a sense of a filled, resonant pair of lungs. Ex- 
hale slowly and evenly in a long stream for as long a time as possible. 
A number of teachers advocate little plays for these breathing exer- 
cises. Miss Kathryn E. Stone, Supervisor of Music at Los Angeles, 
California, in her helpful Teacher's Manual of Music for the Elemen- 



318 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

tary Schools gives the following suggestive exercises for primary- 
grades: 

Smell the rose — hold the breath, then quietly and slowly blow away 
its petals. 

Smell the violet — then blow to lift the ceiling 

Smell the clover — then moo like the cow. 

Smell the clover — then hum or buzz like the bee, near and then far 
away. 

Smell the honeysuckle — then hum like the humming- bird. 

Smell the flower — then blow a soap bubble or feather, send up a 
skyrocket, or wind the top with a z-z-z-z, or puff like an engine. 

The important thing in all of these breathing exercises is that they 
should be done quickly and entered into heartily. During the actual 
singing period the teacher need say little if anything regarding breath- 
ing. If the children give due regard to the sense and the sentiment 
of the words, that is, if they phrase properly and sing with the right 
sort of tone, they will breathe properly in most cases. It is, in fact, 
better to have these given at some other than the music period, since 
they produce best results when used merely as relaxation or play. 

b. Making acute listeners; general sense training. As occa- 
sions arise outside of the music period, such as indoor recesses or times 
of games and informal programs, give attention to various devices for 
sharpening the senses; — sight, sound, touch, taste, smell. The ears of 
the children will be made /much keener if they have such games as 
naming, with eyes closed, who the children are merely from hearing 
them say a word or two; telling what object in the room the teacher is 
striking when she passes about; distinguishing the size of bottles 
merely from hearing the sounds made by tapping upon them; naming 
the songs from which little phrases are taken which the teacher sings ; 
telling from hearing what the rhythms of songs are, that is, whether 
they are marches in double measure, or waltzes in triple measure. 
These suggestions are merely typical of the many interesting devices 
which the teacher may find for making a pleasant play of an excellent 
sense training. 

c. Special attention to tone. There is hardly any aspect of the 
music teaching that is so important as the training of the children 
to sing with a light mellow, round, easily produced tone. The singing 
voice can be controlled almost ab^solutely since most of the children 
sing little away from the school; the talking voice is quite another 
matter for obvious reasons; But the teacher who has made children 
realize the possibilities of beauty in correct singing will be able to do 
much in obtaining pleasant speaking voices. 

Careful attention should be given in all singing not only to the 
quality of tone but to the range of the songs. Usually, songs are pitched 
too low, especially if the teacher herself has trouble with the high 
tones. Be careful to follow the pitch of the printed music absolutely. 
Always have your pitch pipe ready both to start the song and to test 



MUSIC 319 

it at the end and during the song. Have children sing with a light 
tone rather than with the harsh, strident shout that is so common. 

The thin, head-tone, high in pitch and light in quality is the voice 
which the. teacher should insist upon getting. Keep the songs pitched 
correctly — never start a song hy guess or 'by ear; always use either a 
pitch pipe or an instrument — and do not allow noisy, harsh, sharp, or 
nasal singing at any time. You can get all the enthusiasm and hearty 
participation you want if you start the children right and never allow 
them to shout. Sing songs with loo to get a soft tone. Then try to 
keep this same quality when words are used. Use imitations of the 
wind sighing through the trees, the sound of the dove cooing or the cow 
mooing. Let the children bring in other soft and t^autiful sounds of 
nature. This will both emphasize the quality of tone and will make 
the children more keenly alive to the sounds of nature. Use also the 
sounds of the mother calling her child — '"Maty." Many of these sounds 
are very helpful in developing those children who are somewhat de- 
ficient musically, the ones who are so frequently misnamed as "mono- 
tones." It is worth while to give some special attention to these pupils. 
d. Helping the musicaily backward 

(1) Arrangement of children. Seat all the children in the room in 
the following way: Let your very best singers be in the rear seats all the 
way across the room; the next best be in the seats in front of those, 
and have the poorest in the front seats. By thiy meims every child has 
someone sitting behind him who is a better sinrer than he is and who 
consequently offers a model to him for better singing. Very early in 
the year test all of the children by means of a little song that each one 
sings alone or possibly better, by one of these imitations or calls which 
each one sings alone. 

(2) Special individual help. While this seating arrangement 
will do much to assist the children who are deficient or backward mu- 
sically, it will not take care of the worst cases. A child, for instance, 
who persistently sings on a single tone needs special attention. So does 
the child who sings a tune incorrectly, especially if he is no longer 
among the youngest children. The little folks frequently do not sing 
to the pitch because they are not accustomed to singing, and not be- 
cause they have not good ears. Many of them will develop into good 
singers merely by hearing the others sing correctly. The best aid, 
therefore, to good singing later on, is allowing only those children to 
sing at first who can sing correctly. Let the other children listen a 
great deal and try to sing occasionally. As soon as they can cing cor- 
rectly, allow them to join in with the others. Most of the children who 
do not sing correctly, are not tone deaf, but simply careless in their lis* 
tening. What we need to do in training them is to get them to listen 
more sharply. But even these children do need a little special help 
and the teacher may well take a portion of the music period for in- 
dividual work with these children. Imitate sounds such as one child 
calling another some distance away, the mooing of the cow, the whiet- 



3 20 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

ling or humming of the wind, cries of peddlers, the sound of the truw-v 
pet, or of the drum, in fact any combination of sounds which will in- 
terest the child and which he will be pleased to imitate. The sound of 
the cuckoo, such as is given out by a cuckoo clock, is helpful in the be- 
ginning. Usually, however, the intervals should be those that go up- 
ward instead of downward. The octave jump is especially helpful, such 
as in calling a child, Johnny. Sing little phrases with words which 
you make up yourself on the tones of the chord do, sol, mi, do. Start 
with any pitch which the child can sing rather than insist upon his 
taking the pitch which you give. After the children can give these 
isolated sounds or little phrases correctly, let them try portions of 
songs; then gradually encourage them to do all of little short songs, 
and finally allow them to join in the general singing. Some excellent 
material for this purpose is given in Child-Land in Song and Rhythm 
by Barbour, published by A. P. Schmidt & Co., Boston. See that they 
sing softly at first, so that they constantly hear the sound of a better 
singer namely, of the one sitting in the rear of them. The most im- 
portant part of this work is the spirit of encouragement and the daily 
practice even if it be for only a minute or two. 

This endeavor to obtain pure, true singing by all of the children 
will cause the work to move slowly at first, but the good results that 
will come later on will more than repay the teacher for all of her ef- 
forts. It is true that rhythm can be obtained from music without 
beautiful tone, but rhythm by no means compares with tone in 
beauty and artistic effect. 

(3) The problem of keeping the boy singing as he enters ado- 
lesence. 

As the boys grow older and enter the adolescent period, their voices 
will grow lower in pitch, in other words, will "change." This is a 
period which the teacher will have to watch carefully. Nearly always, 
if the relationships of the schoolroom are harmonious, the natural in- 
stincts of the boy may be trusted. While there is no excuse for allow- 
ing a boy of ten or eleven to sing a song at any pitch other than the one 
that is stipulated by the composer, when the boy becomes two or three 
years older, he may with perfect reason desire to sing the song some- 
what lower than it is pitched. When there is no part singing in the 
school the only course left for him is to sing the melody an octave 
lower, and this frequently brings it into a region where he can only 
growl. This is of course an undesirable condition. The remedy is 
either to change the pitch of the song so that the boy of this age can 
sing it comfortably, or to select another song of more limited range 
which is within his power, or to ask him to refrain from singing for a 
time. Unfortunate as the latter condition is, it is sometimes the right 
one. It is absolutely essential that the tone of the singing as a whole 
be a pleasant one; and unfair as the procedure is for the individual 
boy, still, from the point of view of the entire school it is necessary to 
treat the boy with the growing voice quite the same as we have de- 



MUSIC 321 

scribed for the musically deficient. One other device should, however, 
be mentioned, namely, that of allowing the larger boys to whistle the 
melody while the other children sing it. This always appeals to them 
and in many ways gives them good music training besides enabling 
them to be a part of the general music period. It may, if carefully 
guided, add greatly to the purely musical effect. 

e. Special attention to rhythm. All children are naturally 
rhythmical; the school needs merely to give opportunities for strength- 
ening this instinct, and for making the children analyze and under- 
stand it. There should be scattered throughout the week in play per- 
iods arid times for physical exercises, frequent opportunities for march- 
ing, clapping the hands in time to the music, and other devices for 
strengthening the rhythmic instinct. Poetry should be read with 
strong accents, in fact with little children sing-songing is a desirable 
process, especially with such jingles as the Mother Goose rhymes. One 
of the best ways of approaching a new song that is to be studied by 
note is to have the children read the text rhythmically aloud. This 
frequently gives almost the exact values of the various notes. 

Rythmic games and folk dances are of the greatest value to the music 
training besides being excellent for many other purposes. It is sig- 
nificant that the later series of music books include a considerable 
amount of material of this kind. 

4. Reading and writing of nui^ic. So marked has been the de- 
velopment of methods of teaching the reading and writing of music that 
there is no longer any reason for denying at least some of this work to 
children in all of our schools. Just as in the literature or general read- 
ing work the first steps are no longer the learning of the alphabet but 
the recognizing of words and phrases in material which the children 
have already learned by ear, so in the best music methods to-day the 
child does not begin his study by learning scales and then gradually 
constructing isolated musical phrases, but rather recognizes parts of a 
song which he has already learned by rote. The reading of music then 
should begin with the material given in the rote songs. Much of the 
work will be of a kind that will seem to be little more than getting 
acquainted with songs that are already familiar. Let the teacher begin 
by singing the first phrases of a number of these songs with loo, and 
asking the children to tell the names of the songs, or better, to sing 
after her the same phrase, using the right words. Then the teacher 
may give the children, as another set of words, the syllable or scale 
names of these song phrases to that when she sings them with loo, she 
may have the children reproduce them with words or scale names. 
After the children can sing a large number of these phrases with the 
scale names, the teacher may proceed to the next step, namely, the 
placing of these phrases upon the board, or better still, upon placards 
of stiff cardboard. (The cardboard is better because it saves the black- 
board space and can be used month after monlh after being written 

21— S. M. 



322 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

once.) At first the teacher will tell the children just what phrase is 
represented on the cardboard. After a number of them have been 
identified in this way, the children will have to do some thinking and 
calculating in order to distinguish between the various phrases. The 
next step will be taking portions, say measures, of some of these 
phrases and asking the children to sing them with words or with scale 
names. When this work has been done thoroughly and happily, for it 
may all be done almost in the play spirit, the children are ready to 
take up new material either upon charts or better still, in books which 
they have in their hands. For suitable books see No. 3 under Refer- 
ences (V). Eventually the school should possess sets of two or three 
different series. 



III. SPECIAL TOPICS 

1. The use of the phonograph in the schooTroom. The phono- 
graph can be of great aid in the teaching of music. Some of the pur- 
poses for which it may be used are the following: 

a. Supplying music for marching, rhythmic exercises, games, 
folk dances, and the like. 

b. Furnishing excellent material for listening lessons in music. 
This is a need that it has been difliicult to supply in most schools and 
that can now inexpensively be taken care of. Children and adults are 
alike hungry for good music. 

c. Supplying patterns for rote song singing. Some of the 
companies have songs that are made especially for this purpose, both 
to assist teachers who cannot sing and to give suggestians to those 
who can sing. 

d. Giving material for technical study. The following is a 
summary of how one particular record (Victor, number 17719) has 
been used in this connection: 

(1) Children listen 

(2) Children hum (with the instrument) 

(3) Children sing- softly (with the instrument) 

(4) Children sing- first and second phrases 

(5) Children sing- third and fourth phrases 

(6) Children clap rythm 

(7) Children mark rythm at blackboard 
(8) Individual test (singing words) 

(9) Individual test (singing syllables) 
(10) Individual test (singing syllables and clapping rythm) 

LIST OF PHONOGRAPH RECORDS RECO^OIENDETD FOR 

SCHOOLS 

Before giving a list of isolated records, mention must be made of the 
remarkable set of educational records published by the Foresman Rec- 
ord Company of Chicago. In 48 closely related records embodying 



MUSIC 323 

over 200 examples and studitc, this company has arranged a complete 
teaching series by the aid of which remarkable results may be ob- 
tained in any school; in all of the lines of work mentioned in this 
outline. ! ■ f i 

The following 18 individual Victor records which may be purchased 
at the total cost of $16.50, will be found very valuable for explanatory 
material either with the Foresman course or independent of it: 

No. 18076:. Ten Children's Rote Songs: 

Mother Goose Songs — (1) Humpty Dumpty; (2) To Market; 

(3) Crooked man; (4) Tommy Tucker; (5) Mother 
Hubbard; (1) Sing- a song of sixpence; (2) I love little 
Pussy; (3) Georgie Porgie; (4) Pussy Cat; (5) Feast of 
lanterns — Elizabeth Wheeler 75 

No. 17719: Eleven ChUdi-en's Rote Songs: 

(1) Jack in the Pulpit; (2) In the belfry; (3) Corn Soldiers; 

(4) Naming the trees; (5) Squirrel; (6) Windmill; 

(1) Riggetty Jig; (2) Singing school; (3) Dancing 
song; (4) Dancing in May; (5) Mother Goose lullaby. . . .75 

No. 17937: Seven Children's Rote Songs: 

(l)Baa, Baa Black Sheep (2) How many miles to Babylon; 
(3) Bobby Shafto; (4) Baby Dear; (l)Little shoemaker; 

(2) Song of Iron; (3) The blacksmith 75 

No. 35595: Teaching Record: 

Scale exercises, dictation, elementary songs, etc 1.25 

No. 74359: Art Song, Baritone: 

The lost ohord 1.50 

No. 18045: Folk Songs — Contralto: 

Home, Sweet Home; My Old Kentucky Home 75 

No. 17580: Band — Patriotic Songs: 

America; Red, White and Blue 75 

No. 18145: Band — FoUc Songs: 

Believe me if all those endearing young charms; Home, 
sweet home; My old Kentucky home; Battle hymn of 

the republic 75 

No. 64134: Violin: 

Traumerei 1 00 

No. 45096: CeUo: 

The swan; Melody in F . . . .' 1 00 

No. 17917: Xylophone Bells: 

Gavotte; minuet 75 

No. 17454: Trio — Violin, Cello, Harp: 

Berceuse; humoresque 75 

No. 35324: Orchestra: 

In a clock store; Hunt in the Black Forest i 25 

No. 18017: Band — March: 

Tenth Regiment; In the park 75 

No. 17761: Band — Singing Games: 

Seven pretty girls; The first of May 75 

No. 17084: Band— Folk Dances: 

Shoemaker; Klappdans 75 

No. 17158: Band — FoUc Dances: 

I see you; Dance of greeting . 75 

No. 55049: Bird Imitations: 

Songs of our native birds, Nos. 1 and 2 ,.1.50 



324 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

2. Relation of the school to the cominunity at large 

In the movement for relating the school to the activities of the com- 
munity, music can play an important part. Two points only need to 
be mentioned in this outline: 

a. Programs by the chlldreoQ. These should contain, first of 
all, songs that are given in the lists above, not the special material 
which is so often introduced for temporary entertainments. They may 
also include phonograph records which the children have studied in 
school and about which they have, with the aid of the teacher, formu- 
lated some explanatory and biographical remarks which will be of in- 
terest and help to parents. The University Extension Division is 
giving considerable attention to this work and will be glad to aid at 
any time. 

b. Singing by parents. The little ten cent collection mentioned 
in V should be in every home and should be available at every parents' 
meeting. Whenever people, old or young, come together, they should 
find time for singing at least one of these songs. This will not only 
help the particular meeting but will serve to strengthen the music 
work in the school. 

Baltimore county adults in connection with the upper grades of 
neighborhood schools held ten "Community Sings" on "Get Together 
Day" of the farmers of Baltimore county. Five hundred and more 
sang. The county band (volunteer) accompanied. Baltimore city is 
holding "Community Sings" in the concert hall of Peabody Conserva- 
tory. The municipal band includes several numbers for singing when 
it gives its street band concerts. 



IV. SUMMARY 

What it would be desirable to have the children able to do when they 
finish the common school. 

1. Sing 100 songs, using clear, sweet tones. 

2. Keep time to the songs and instrumental material played upon 
piano, organ, or mechanical reproducing instrument. 

3. Sing the scale names for simpler portions of selected songs. 

4. Recognize these same phrases from written material. 

5. Extend this same work to the larger portions of all songs learned. 

6. Use this technical knowledge for new songs on charts or in books. 

7. Know the key and rhythm ■ signatures. 

8. Use all the above knowledge in two-part singing. 



MUSIC 325 



V. REFERENCE BOOKS 

The following books contain all the material that the teacher will 
need in doing the work outlined in this course: 

1. The book containing the fifty songs listed in paragraph 1 of the 
Work to be Done is Fifty-five Songs and Choruses for Community Sing- 
ing, selected by the National Conference of Music Supervisors. It is 
published by C. C. Birchard & Co., Boston, Price 10c. 

2. Ten source books for school rote songs. These may be purchased 
from the individual publishers or from general dealers such as the Clay- 
ton F, Summy Co., Chicago, and the Kahn Music Co., Milwaukee, at 
the prices quoted. (Postage extra.) For lists of songs see heading II 
2, above. 

Smith. Modern music primer. Silver. 2 5c. 

lillliott. Mother Goose set to music. McLoughlin, N. Y. 40c. 

Moffat & Kidson. Children's songs of long ago. G. Schirmer, 

N. Y. $1.20 
Bentley. Song primer. Barnes. 30c. 
Gilbert. One hundred folk songs. Birchard. 50c. 
Gaynor. Songs of the child-world, vol. 1. (T) 
Hofer. Popular folk games and dances. Flanagan. 75c. 
Farnsworth & Sharp. Folk songs, chanteys, and singing games 

H. W. Gray Co., N. Y. 80c. 
McLioughhii. Teachers' edition for elementary grades of the New 

Educational music course. Ginn. $1.25. 
Parker. Progressive music series. Teacher's manual. Volume 

I. Silver. $1.00. 

3. A list of books for technical study to be placed in the hands of 
children. 

Congdon readers, books 1 and 2. C. H. Congdon, Chicago. 10c 

each. 
Progressive music series, book 1. Silver. 30c. 
liyric music series, primer. Scott. 25c. 
Danii. Music course, second year music. Amer. Bk. Co. 30c. 

The publishers of each of these little books supply detailed direc- 
tions for using their material. 

The total cost of these sixteen books is less than ten dollars. This 
would give a music library that would be suflacient for the teacher's 
work for years and would insure an excellent supply of material for 
practically every occasion. 



DRAWING 



I. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

1. Value. Drawing is a means of expression. It should he 
taught in every rural school, because it enables the child to appre- 
ciate the beautiful things around him; it trains him toward a useful 
art and it enriches all of his other school work. 

2. Adaptation to local and individual needs. Every teacher can 
teach drawing if she will study these suggestions carefully, and make 
them her own by adapting them to local conditions. One way of 
doing so is by using the objects (dishes, flowers, etc.) found in the 
community for picture drawing if the ones suggested here cannot be 
secured. Another way of adapting this work to individual needs Is 
by making. Instead of the construction work here suggested, things 
that will illustrate the history, geography, or language work being 
taught at that time in any one school. 

3. Type lessons. This course is planned to meet the needs of 
teacher's who have a limited equipment, by furnishing them with 
type lessons which may be changed from year to year to give variety 
to the work; yet it seems best not to vary greatly from the kinds of 
work here suggested, simply changing the particular flowers, objects, 
etc., if pupils have drawn them successfully before. For those 
teachers who are fortunate enough to have more equipment, there 
is a list of reference books which suggest much more elaborate work, 
however, original ideas conforming to the requirements of art, worked 
out by the pupils and teachers themselves, are of the greatest value; 
and every effort should be made to encourage originality and spon- 
taneity in all art work, no matter how simple the problem may be. 

4. The materials actually required to teach this course, as here 
planned, to twenty-five pupils for one year are given below: 

a. Wax crayons. Boxes containing sixteen colors at ten cents 
each — one for each child, kept by the individual children. 

b. Drawing pencils. Large soft lead pencils, one for each pupil, 
marked with child's name, kept standing up in a perferated shoe 
box or similar case, and used only for drawing or possibly for writr 
ing also in the primary classes. These pencils cost five cents each 
at retail stores. 



DRAWING 327 

c. Ink brushes. Camel's hair brushes, size No. 7- — -long handles 
— costing five cents each. 

The crayons, brushes, and pencils may be bought at wholesale by 
the school board and sold to the children at school by the teacher 
it" desired; but it is almost necessary to do this with the drawing 
paper which can be kept much better by the teacher and bought to 
better advantage in quantities. The packages here mentioned are 
assumed to contain one hundred sheets each, and the quantities are 
to supply a school of twenty-five children for one year. Vary these 
to suit particular needs. 

Manila paper — size 6x9 in. — 5 packages at about 5c per pkg. 

Manila paper — size 9x12 in. — 3 packages at about 10c per pkg. 

Gray manila paper — size 9x12 in. — 4 packages at about 12c per pkg. 

White drawing paper — size 6x9 in. — 5 packages at about 10c per pkg. 

White drawing paper — size 9x12 in. — 3 packages at about 20c per 
pkg. 

5. Additional material. Below is a list of materials which are 
very desirable but are not absolutely necessary to the teaching of 
drawing as here outlined: 

a. Colored construction papers in greens, browns, and grays, 
coming in packages of 50 sheets, size 9x12 in., and costing about 15c 
per package. These papers are useful for folding and cutting and 
for mounting drawings. 

b. Brass paper fasteners for making jointed dolls, etc., cost 
nominal. 

c. Good libiury paste, one gallon, costing about $1.50. 

d. Paper cutter with a ten-inch knife for general school use, 
costing about $1.65. 

e. Rulers costing about 10c per dozen. 

f. Standard color chart consisting of colors and hues to show 
pupils — cost nominal if teacher buys colored papers and makes chart. 

g. Scissors for each child costing about 10c per pair. 

All of the supplies listed for drawing work can be obtained from 
the firms listed under "References for Teachers." 

6. Begin the drawing the first week of school and encourage the 
pupils to use this means of expressing themselves in all their recita- 
tions and in their written seat work. Drawings are often much 
clearer than verbal explanations. 

7. Pictures to illustrate reading lessons. After the work planned 
for September has been completed, let the primary children draw, 
from imagination, pictures to illustrate sentences or paragraphs in 
their reading lessons that are not illustrated in the text, as a seat 
work exercise. 

8. Number of lessons and grading. It is intended that the teacher 
will spend two periods of twenty minutes each per week on drawing. 
The first month's work is practically uniform for all of the school. 



3 28 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 




After the drawings are made, a few moments of class criticism with sug- 
gestions by the teacher should follow. 



District No. 5 ; Town of Richland ; County of Richland ; Teacher — Miss 
^ois James. 




The, proper arrangement of studies with cardboard screens back of thei-.i 
on temporary shelf across front of room. 



DRAWING 3 29 

After September it is intended that the older pupils will do the work 
outlined for intermediate grades, and the younger children will at 
the same time do that outlined for primary grades, the teacher direct- 
ing both simultaneously. 

9. Support for models. Secure two long boards th^t will reach 
from either end of teacher's desk or stove to a chair or some other 
object in the room, making a temporary shelf across the front of the 
room, about three feet in front of children's desks and about three 
feet above the floor. Shorter boards may be used to reach across 
aisles in the center of the room. Six or eight pickle bottles filled 
with wet sand, and some large white box covers are also needed. 
Glue rests to the box covers if possible so that they will stand, or 
else join them like book covers with, a cloth hinge and use them to 
place behind objects to be drawn to bring them out clearly. 

10. Models. Be constantly on the alert when visiting in the 
community for plain vase forms, jars, etc., that will make good 
models for drawing lessons. 

11. Seat work. After a lesson has been taught to the primary 
pupils, before whom the teacher should always make a drawing, the 
children may repeat the lesson or do an original exercise based upon 
this for seat work. 

12. Preservation and display of draAvings. Make portfolios of 
cardboard in which pupils may keep their drawings. Encourage the 
children to take their best work home to show to parents. Display 
work in the schoolhouse, changing it frequently. Plan to have draw- 
ings mounted on gray cardboard 22x28 inches for permanent exhibi- 
tion at the schoolhouse or at the county fair. 

13. Drawing and other school subjects. Always use every oppor- 
tunity to utilize drawing in language work to illustrate stories writ- 
ten by the pupils, and encourage blackboard diagrams to illustrate 
arithmetic problems and other school exercises. 

14. Training in appreciation. In the elementary schools especi- 
ally, children should be taught to have a feeling for the artistic things 
in life, an appreciation of the beauties and harmonies of nature, and a 
love for "God's-Out-of-Doors." 



II. COURSE OF STUDY 

First Month 

Lessen 1. Grass drawn with black crayon. For this first lesson, 
place a fine specim.en of grass in each bottle so that the grass appears 
as if growing. Place a bottle in front of each aisle — nearly on a level 
with the eyes of the seated pupils — upon the shelf made of boards 
across front of room. Place a cardboard screen behind each study. 



330 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

Place other studies nearer pupils who cannot see the ones in the 
front of room. Talk about the length of the head, compared with 
length of stem. Note direction of slant of stem, leaves, etc. Note 
width of head and characteristics. 

This type of study should precede all object or nature drawing. 
The teacher should next seat herself in front of a study and sketch, 
talking as she works as is illustrated in the next lesson, except that 
the work in Lesson 1 is all done in black crayon upon half sheets of 
9x12 inch Manila paper cut the long way. 

Ijesson 2. Study of grass in color. Proceed as for Lesson 1 with 
discussion of appearance of grass. Teacher may seat herself near 
center of room. Let small pupils stand nearest her, others back of 
them, so all can see her work. If the school Is too large, let older 
half wait until teacher finishes sketching for younger ones, listening 
meanwhile, carefully, to what is said. She may say, "I take my green 
crayon and draw lightly the long lines, being sure that I slant them 
just right and keep all of the parts the right length. You see I look 
at the grass more than at my paper. Then I work in the head with 
short hard strokes suggesting seeds. I put brown and blue over the 
green for there is no pure green In nature. Next, I notice the turn 
in the leaf- and how it joins the stem. I put this in carefully with 
the side of my crayon, add blue and brown, and then sharpen up the 
stem. Now, my grass is done. I will give you half sheets of 9x12 
inch Manila paper and you draw the grass you see best, so carefully 
that I can tell which study you copied. Be sure to let the stem reach 
the edge of the paper." 

As soon as pupils have finished, let a few of them go in turn to 
front of room with their drawings, holding them near the study of 
grass which they drew. Class criticisms will aid them in their future 
efforts. Always praise real effort^ even if results are discouraging 
to the teacher. See cut p. 328. 

Liesson 3. Simple flowers as red salvia, smart weed, or larksnur in 
colored crayon on 6x9 Inch Manila paper. Use very simple snrays 
for primary pupils. Place in bottles as before. Teacher work out 
only a part of the flower mass for one punil, who will try to finish 
it as well as the teacher began the work. Work out a leaf on another 
naner while class watches process. Remember that a leaf Is worked 
in with a diagonal stroke, but Is not outlined first. Just thp mi'^- 
rib is drawn for the direction of growth. Teacher must half close 
eyes to see lights and shadows. Teach pupils to do same, putting In 
a touch of violet and brown or black for shadows. 

Lesson 4. Study of elements in a landscape. Look out of school 
house door or window. See a simple Ir.ndscape. Find horizon line. 
Note trees or hills along this line. Note color of these (blue if far 
away). Note that they are delicate in color. Note size of objects 
on the horizon line. Compare with .those nearer. Note apparent 



DRAWING 331 

height of horizon line (level of eye). Have these facts generalized 

and stated. 

• 

Lesson 5. Draw sky and ground. Show pupils how to put in a 

flat tone of blue for sky, making it gray blue near the horizon line. 
Tell them to use side of crayon and make light parallel strokes. Use 
6x9 inch white drawing paper after drawing a margin of one inch 
with black crayon. Work the long way of the paper, making the 
horizon line a little more than half way down the paper. Add brown 
and green for the ground, putting green on first. 

Lesson 6. Add distant foliage, putting it in after studying appear- 
ance of real trees in the distance. Keep the foliage small and 
irregular. Add a near-by tree studied carefully as to mass shape and 
bits of sky peeping through branches. Add trunk after studying its 
comparative length and width. 

Lesson 7. Study a different landscape containing a road, brook, 
or path. Note that the curves appear narrow from front to back, 
but wide from left to right. Remember that paths, roads, and 
brooks come to a point if they reach to the horizon line. Practice 
paths etc. on the blackboard from pleasing and natural curves. 
Study these in good pictures from geographies, etc. 

Lesson 8. Draw the landscape studied on 6x9 inch white paper, 
first drawing a margin line. As soon as pupils begin to work, 
teacher must pass about room giving help where needed. The 
younger pupils may be given papers half the size of those given 
to the older children, or they may be given an added period in which 
to finish their work. Class criticism of landscapes will help to se- 
cure good results. 



Second Month 

Lesson 1. All pupils. Teacher talk about colors. Teach the 
three primary colors (red, blue, and yellow), and the three sec- 
ondary colors made by mixing these (green, orange and violet). 
Blend each neighboring two of these colors to make the twelve 
hues. Show just how these are made (colored chalk on paper will 
do this by rubbing together with finger). Show color chart if pos- 
sible. 

Lesson 2 

a. Primary. Give each pupil a spool with which to draw cir- 
cles. Let each make a page of balloons in the six prismatic colors 
using 6x9 inch white paper. 

b. Intermediate. Conduct a recitation upon colors. Give ex- 
ercises in matching book covers el:c. with standards. Decide 
whether covers etc. are pure color or grayed. Use wax crayons for 
standards if no better material is at hand. 



332 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

Lesson 3 

a. Primary. Give pupils autumn leaves in strong colors. Show 
them how to trace around leaf on 6x9 inch Manila paper, and copy 
colorings of leaf, putting yellow all over leaf, first, adding green 
or red where found. Add brown veins. 

b. Intermediate. Teach lesson on color harmony. The pupils 
should study the color harmonies in leaves and flowers. 

The complementary colors are those which mixed produce gray- 
These may be combined with good effect producing complementary 
harmony. They are red and green, blue and orange, yellow and 
violet. 

Analogous harmony is produced by combining two neighboring 
colors as red and violet or orange and yellow. 

Interest the pupils in noting that pure colors occur only in small 
quantities, most colors in nature being grayed by blending with 
their complements. Have this theory applied to house decorations 
and personal dress, showing the advantage of softened colors from 
an artistic standpoint. 

Lesson 4 

a. Primary. Pupils cut out the leaves they have made and 
others made as seat work, and arrange two or three on a sheet of 
9x12 inch gray Manila, adding a brown crayon stem and branch. 
The leaves can be pasted in place with the aid of older pupils at 
next intermission. Pressing over night will improve the appear- 
ance of these drawings. 

b. Intermediate. Recite on color harmony, and show its ap- 
plication in choice of dresses, ribbons, house furnishings, etc. Ask 
pupils to report good color combinations found outside of school. 

Lesson 5 

a. Primary. Begin simple autumn landscape. May be made 
on gray paper — night scene for Hallow-e'en if desired — add witches, 
bats, etc. to blue black sky — black shrubbery — orange windows in 
black houses. 

b. Intermediate. Begin more complex landscape. October 
colorings. Possibly using same scene as was used in September, 
(If fall colorings are fading, give the lesson earlier). Use 9x12 
inch white paper. 

Lesson 6. All pupils finish landscapes begun in lesson 5. 

Lesson 7. All pupils. Draw an apple— red and green very 
sharply colored. Place apples on boards— screens behind them. 
Study shape, stem depression and colorings. Find basic color. 
Block in shape and size with light yellow lines. Using yellow as a 
basic color, paint apple, stroking with crayon to imitate curve of 
apple. Add brown, green and red, as they appear. A little black 
may be needed. Keep high lights clean to make apple appear 
round. Use a simple apple for primary pupils, a more difficult one 



DRAWING 333 

for adults. Use 6x9 inch Manila paper. When finished, draw the 
table line (where back edge of board appears to cross apple), put 
in a slight shadow with horizontal lines below table line, and ver- 
tical lines above it. 

Lesson 8 

a. Primary. Draw a marigold in wax crayon — very simple 
side view. Use 6x9 inch white paper. 

b. Intermediate. Draw two flowers placed pleasingly as if 
growing. Flowers may be kept in water for drawing after frosts 
have killed those left out of doors. Use 6x9 inch white paper. 

Third Month 

Lesson 1. All children. Seat pupils so that all have access to 
ink. Show them how to use brushes — straight up for stems; on side 
and full of ink for surface coverings. Study the shape of a milk 
weed pod, its chief characteristics, how it is joined to stem, and 
angle of growth. Have simple sprays of one pod for primary pu- 
pils, larger ones for intermediate children. Teacher draw one so 
pupils may watch process. Be sure to draw fine lines for direction 
of growth and mass in pods working from center to edge. Show 
enlarged joints on stems. Use 6x9 inch gray Manila paper for 
primary pupils and 9x12 inch gray Manila paper for intermediate 
work. Be sure that studies are arranged in bottles or else that 
each child has one of his own to place on his desk while he works. 

Lesson 2 

a. Primary. Children draw simple study of dried grass or 
bitter-sweet berries in colored crayon, using 6x9 inch Manila paper. 

b. Intermediate. Draw dried seed pods in ink — wild carrot 
suggested. Show characteristic shapes as seen against white screen. 
Note apparent shapes of curled leaves. Use 9x12 inch white paper. 
Teacher to help pupils to see the mass shapes of pods first and 
details afterwards. 

Lesson 8. Construction. All pupils. Place cards for Thanksgiv- 
ing dinner. Fold white drawing paper 6x9 inch on short diameter. 
From newspaper cut the pattern of a pumpkin about four inches 
by three inches, using a pumpkin as a model. Lay this pattern on 
folded paper so that the fold will form a hinge at widest part of 
pumpkin. Cut double pumpkin, being careful to leave about one 
inch for hinge. Print name neatly on inside leaf of pumpkin 
folder. 

Lesson 4. All pupils. Decorate outside of pumpkin, copying 
shadings and markings from a real purnpkin. Use this as a pat- 
tern and make others for family dinner if desired. Pupils may 
vary size if preferred. They may buy paper from teacher. These 
may also be used as spelling book covers. 



334 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

Lesson 5 

a. Primary. Begin Pilgrim poster. Gray Manila paper 9x12 
inches — gray blue sky, white ground made with chalk, brown tree 
trunks and dark distant foliage. 

b. Intermediate. Begin dull November landscape to illustrate 
the words "Over the river and thru the woods to grandmother's 
house we go". Use 9x12 inch gray Manila paper. Show bridge, 
road, and trees. 

Lesson 6 

a. Primary. Finish landscape by drawing on 6x9 inch Manila 
a small log cabin (front view, and also one side view). Cut these 
out and paste on landscape as if standing among trees. Tree trunks 
may be drawn over houses. 

b. Intermediate. Complete landscape and print quotation in 
margin at bottom of paper. 

Lesson 7. All pupils. Made decorated dishes. Primary pupils 
— bowls. Intermediate pupils — sugar bowls — pitchers — vegetable 
dishes, etc. 

Fold white paper 6x9 inch (primary), 9x12 inch (intermediate) 
on diameter. Cut sides and top of dish to shape — cups and bowls 
cut straight across top. Cut all straight across bottom. Use ru- 
lers. Decorate with suitable borders. Study simple dishes before 
giving the lesson. Gilt paint may be used. 

Lesson 8 

a. Primary. Using ink, draw beet or turnip in silhouette on 
6x9 inch gray Manila paper. 

b. Intermediate. Draw small geranium in bloom in ink sil- 
houette against screen. Use 9x12 inch Manila paper. 

Fourth Month 

Lesson 1. All pupils. Pose drawing — 6x9 inch Manila paper. 
Stand a little girl or boy on desk or chair in front of each half of 
room, with a broom or book in hand — side view. Study the height 
of figure compared with the width. Measure for proportion of 
skirt, waist, head, etc. Teacher draw pose with short strokes of 
colored crayon for class. Pupils draw- 

Lesson 2. All pupils- Criticisms and suggestions on above draw- 
ings. Help pupils individually to build figure into correct propor- 
tions, to correct feet positions, etc. 

Lesson 3 

a. Primary. Draw a girl or boy posed as if going to school, 
b- Intermediate. Draw a girl posed as if sweeping. Use 6x9 
inch Manila paper for both. 



. DRAWING 335 

Lesson 4 

a. Primary. Draw a sky line lightly, the long way, on white 
6x9 inch paper. Above the line blend a brilliant sunset after class 
gives colors — blue, orange, yellow, red. Place distant foliage at 
base of this in dark brown. Add tree trunks, branches barely show- 
ing at top of paper. 

b. Intermediate. Draw a dull gray winter landscape. Study 
from a window, placing it up and down oit 6x9 inch white paper. 
Leave paper white for snow. Add a little brown rabbit in lower 
corner if desired. 

Cut both of these landscapes down to attractive sizes, mount on 
red or gray construction paper, or on gray Manila paper. Add a 
small calendar. Use for Christmas gift. 

Lesson 5 

a. Primary. Using 6x9 inch pieces of colored papers, or of 
Manila, colored half red and half red and white, show pupils how 
to fold and cut little lanterns for decoration of a Christmas tree. 
Fold paper on long diameter, color outside. Without unfolding, 
fold each 9 inch edge over on to the outside like a hem, turning 
over 1-2 inch at each fold. Unfold hems enough so paper can be 
finely cut from center crease to hem crease. Color the edges first 
folded over black. Bring ends of paper together, add handle, and 
lantern is complete. Variations in color and size will add to the 
interest in these lanterns. For Japanese effects, make from highly 
colored wall paper. 

b. Intermediate. Draw in ink silhouette on 9x12 inch gray 
Manila paper, as seen from window, a tree showing characteristic 
shape. Teacher to guess the kind of tree. 

Lessons 6 and 7 

a. Primary. Children make more lanterns for tree at home. 

b- Intermediate. Design Christmas cards. Use 6x9 inch white 

paper. Fold on long diameter. Draw a border line in blue 1-4 

inch from edge. Across top and bottom, draw another line one 

inch nearer center than border lines. 

Within the small oblongs draw tiny Christmas landscapes — blue 
black sky — Brown city and yellow star in upper one. Same city 
and three camels in lower one- On inside leaf, print a Christmas 
quotation. 

Lesson 8. All pupils. Make drawing of fir tree covered with 
snow. Draw simple landscape — hill with distant foliage. Draw 
tree in green, brown and black. Use chalk for snow. Cut these 
down. Use to illustrate story of "The Little Fir Tree" or similar 
selection. Study a real tree for shape. Use 6x9 inch Manila paper. 



33 6 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



Fifth Month 
Lesson 1 

a. Primary- Bring new dolls to school. Choose one. Fold 
6x9 inch white paper on short diameter — tear. Fold each piece on 
long diameter. With pencil outline the shape of one-half of doll's 
head, body, etc., working with the fold. Cut folded doll, open and 
draw face- 

b. Intermediate. Let those who wish cut dolls. The others 
may draw in crayon a picture to illustrate these words: "They 
made a snow man by the gate". Use 6x9 inch white paper- 

Lesson 2 

a. Primary. Color hair, eyes, hands, shoes, stockings of 
dolL 

b. Intermediate. Draw with ink in silhouette, from a geog- 
raphy, a camel or giraffe. Place light lines under feet. Draw 
small trees in distance. Use 9x12 inch Manila paper. 

Lesson 3 

a. Primary. Use white paper, 6x4 1/^ inch, folded on short 
diameter. Lay doll on paper with fold at neck. Mark indications 
as to size of neck, length of dress, etc. Now fold on center line, 
cut sleeves, and skirt. Decorate dress like some child's or like 
doll's used for copy. Slip dress over doll's head. 

b. Intermediate. Using ink, draw another animal in silhou- 
ette. Use 6x9 inch gray Manila paper. 

Lesson 4. All ipupils. Teach the use of the pencil in drawing — 
sharpened with dull round point, held always perpendicular to 
line being drawn, upright for fine lines, on the side for broad lines. 
Place potatoes on boards. Block in shape. Draw the line form- 
ing the potato, studying it as the line is drawn. Study eyes, po- 
sition, how indicated. Place them. Draw table line. Use 6x9 
inch Manila paper. 

Lesson 5 

a. Primary. Make another dress (undirected). Use white 
paper. - , ; , , r; !|r,:| 

b. Intermediate. Place a group, as a potato and a beet, be- 
fore pupils. Study group. Teach pencil measurements for getting 
proportions. Remember these measurements must be taken at 
arm's length with one eye closed. Show how to multiply these 
to suit the size of paper. Measure and draw nearer object. Show 
class how to place farther object back of first, higher up oh paper, 
and resting; outside of base of nearer object. Use 9x12 inch Ma- 
nila paper. 



DRAWING 337 

Lesson 6 

a. Primary. Make a coat for doll. Gray Manila paper cut 
to size. 

b. Intermediate. Continue work on groups. Place them as 
before. Finish drawing. Test it by holding it at arm's length. 
Correct errors. Draw with firm lines to indicate the character of 
the surface. Put in table lines. 

liesson 7. All pupils. Teach the circle and its appearance in 
various positions. Use two circles of cardboard. Have a pupil 
assist, holding one just as teacher does, for the other half of 
room. Show circle. Get from pupils appearance at eye level, 
below eye level, above eye level. Using the two, show contrast one 
at eye level, one below at same time. Have apparent shape drawn 
on board. Establish the facts firmly. 

Lesson 8. All pupils. Using 6x9 inch Manila paper, and pen- 
cils, intermediate class relying on pencil measurements, draw a 
tumbler partly filled with water. Draw center line lightly first. 
Next draw horizontal diameters of ellipses. Indicate their width. 
Draw with swinging movement. Correct. Darken lines smoothing 
defects and using darkest lines at fronts of ellipses. 

Sixth Month 
Lesson 1 

a. Primary. Using gray 9x12 inch Manila paper, give each 
child, a piece of white blackboard crayon. Place on object shelf 
a toy sheep, boat or teddy bear. Using chalk and colored crayons, 
let pupils draw. 

b. Intermediate. Draw with pencil a dinner pail. Follow 
directions for tumbler. 

Lesson 2 

a. Primary. Begin valentines by folding and cutting a heart 
from white 6x9 inch paper. Put red border 1-4 inch wide around 
it. Print "To My Valentine". 

b. Intermediate. Fold and cut connected hearts for booklet 
valentine. Decorate with draw ribbon bow. Print inside. Use 
6x9 inch white paper. 

This and all lessons based upon holidays for the center of 
thought must be taught a few days before the holiday, exchanging 
places with some other lesson planned in the outline. 

Lesson 3 

a. Primary. Using smaller heart patterns made by them- 
selves at other times, let pupils make and decorate a heart book- 
let made from 6x9 inch white paper. 

b. Intermediate. Draw a group consisting of a bowl and a 
mug. Teach pupils how to draw the handle of the mug before 

22— S. M. 



33 8 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

they attempt it. Use 9x12 inch Manila, paper, pencil, and a little 
color for the decoration of the dishes. 

Lesson 4. All pupils. Using suitable paper, place before class 
grey, white or cream dishes. Let them fold paper and cut them, 
opening paper for handles, then folding to finish. Discuss cor- 
rectness and size, proportion, shape, and handles as they take them 
to front of room. 

Lesson 5. All pupils. Decorate these dishes artistically, using 
dull colors. Mount on contrasting paper. Add table line. 

Lesson 6 

a. Primary. Cut the head of Lincoln, free hand, from 6x9 
inch Manila paper. 

b. Intermediate. Using 6x9 inch Manila paper, study a side 
view of Washington or Lincoln. Draw in silhouette like a bust 
with ink. 

Lesson 7 

a. Primary. Cut, free hand, a head of Washington from- a 
picture, using 6x9 inch Manila paper. 

b. Intermediate. Draw a circle enclosing the head drawn in 
ink in lesson 6. Cut out the circle. Mount it on gray Manila 
paper. Pold to make a booklet cover. 

Lesson 8. All pupils. Develop idea of perspective. Use chalk 
box, or cracker box, and then a half closed door. Convince pupils 
of foreshortening by use of pencil measurements. Take pupils 
out to look at road if it is nearly level and straight. If not, use 
parallel fences. Compare retreating surfaces with the appearance 
of the circle. Show them that all retreating parallel lines appear 
to come together. Show them that vertical lines always remain 
exactly vertical in a drawing. 

Seventh Month 

Lesson 1. All pupils. Continue perspective with whole school. 
Show them from board how to draw a chalk box. Look out of win- 
dow at a distant barn. Show how to draw this. Half close eyes. 
Make sure all retreating lines are drawn toward the eye level 
which should be placed first. Use pencil measurements for pro- 
portions. 

Lesson 2 

a. Primary. Draw a spring landscape showing naked earth, 
wind blown trees and roof of a house. Study from window. Do it 
all in blue crayon on white paper, 6x9 inches. 

b. Intermediate. Draw a similar landscape, putting in more 
details. Put drawing in black or brown on white 6x9 inch paper. 



DRAWING 339 

Lesson 3 

a. Primary. Study Dutch boy and girl. Cut dolls as before. 
Use 6x9 inch Manila paper. 

b. Intermediate. Draw pencil study of chalk box, or of teach- 
er's desk. Use 9x12 inch Manila paper. 

Lesson 4 

a. Primary. Draw faces of dolls. Color. Cut dresses. Dutch 
style — color blue, etc. Use 6x9 inch Manila paper. 

b. Intermediate. Draw in ink silhouette a clothesline and 
flapping clothes. Use 9x12 inch Manila paper. 

Lesson 5 

a. Primary. Make more doll costumes from Dutch pictures. 

b. Intermediate. Working with class, show them how to draw 
a book in perspective. Draw first the rectangular solid of proper 
proportions, then modify by extending edges of covers, rounding, 
binding, etc. Use 9x12 inch gray Manila paper. Accent the lines 
indicating nearest edges. 

Lesson 6. Both classes. Draw a child posed, carrying an um- 
brella or basket. Primary pupils use crayon. Intermediate pupils 
use black and red ink if possible, using red for ribbon or basket. 
Use 9x12 inch Manila paper. 

Lesson 7 

a. Primary. Fold a piece of 9x12 inch white paper into 
fourths the long way. Cut off 1-4 on a crease. Fold one inch 
over on each end of the remaining piece. Fold again, making two 
creases at each end. Open. Fold on short diameter. Fringe to 
first creases. Place border in space between creases, fold and press 
for dolls' towels. 

b. Intermediate. Draw a book placed in different positions, 
using colored crayon with pencil and 9x12 inch white paper. 

Lesson 8. Both classes. Work on gray Manila paper, drawing 
lilac buds on branch. Be sure to^ study growth carefully, and 
see that- each pupil faithfully represents the specimen he has be- 
fore him. It is best to have a small branch on each desk also. 

Eighth Month 
Lesson 1 

a. Primary. Cut out and decorate May baskets. Teacher 
should have a simple model prepared and patterns for all. Use 
white 9x12 inch drawing paper. 

b. Intermediate. Pencil study of alder buds, teacher working 
and talking, showing pupils how to express surface characteristics 
with pencil. Be careful to watch the study carefully, and to do 
crisp work. Use white 9x12 inch paper. 



340 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

Lesson 2 

a. Primary. Let pupils copy free hand from the board the 
parts of a jointed animal. Let them trace each with a heavy line- 
Use gray 9x12 inch Manila paper. As soon as one of each pair of 
legs is copied, cut it out (outside of block line) and trace the 
other one from it, then corresponding limbs will be alike. Put 
together after school or at recess with little cloth hinges, giving 
some freedom, or with paper fasteners. Children will need in- 
dividual help to put these together. Jointed animal patterns can 
be made from any good animal pattern. 

b. Intermediate. Pencil study of a group consisting of a book 
and a dinner pail. Arrange groups just below eye level of seated 
pupils. Place book partly in front of pail. Estimate size of en- 
tire group. Use 9x12 inch gray Manila paper. Place paper ac- 
cordingly. Use pencil measurements. Sketch book. Be sure that 
book appears flat. Remember hov^ group is placed. Finish at 
next lesson. 

Lesson 3 

a. Primary. Let pupils draw a simple object in pencil, as a 
bowl, showing ellipse at top and bottom. A border may be placed 
around bowl consisting of two almost parallel curved lines. Re- 
member the center line. Use 6x9 inch Manila paper. 

b. Intermediate. Finish sketch begun in preceding lesson. 
Draw pail back of book. Be sure to have base outside of book. 
Give directions for pail and bowl at same time. Center line — 
diameters of ellipses, etc. Half ellipses for creases in pail, etc. 
Finish sketches with accented lines, making nearest parts darkest. 

Lesson 4. All pupils. Study of spring landscape — the yellow 
greens, the soft tones, the various shades of green seen, the con- 
trast with autumn colorings. 

Lesson 5. All pupils. Draw in crayola a spring landscape from 
a good viewpoint in school yard, working with a stick of wood for 
a seat, and a large book for a desk. Study comparative sizes care- 
fully. Represent only a few of the details seen. Let intermediate 
pupils attempt a more detailed sketch than primary children. Use 
6x9 inch white paper. 

Lesson 6. All pupils. Study the markings of a red winged 
blackbird, a bluebird, or a scarlet tanager. Study and sketch 
outline of the bird lightly in pencil. Use a bird picture for sug- 
gestive placing. Use 9x12 inch white paper. 

Lesson 7. All pupils. Color the bird with crayons and place the 
branch, upon which he rests, so that one end reaches the edge of 
the paper or margin line. 



DRAWING 341 

Lesson 8 

a. Primary. Draw from nature a spray of yellow cowslips or 
buttercups. Study cup shape carefully. Use 6x9 inch white paper. 

b. Intermediate. Draw on half sheets of 9x12 inch white pa- 
per (long way) a blue flag lily with leaves. Use blue green for 
the leaves, and study the blossom carefully so as to avoid getting 
the sides uniform. 



ni. References 

1. References for teachers and pupils. The sets of books listed 
under this heading are paper covered textbooks on construction, 
drawing, and design intended for pupil's use in the grades indi- 
cated by the numbers of the books. Sets or parts of sets of these 
books furnish suggestions and ideals toward which pupils may 
work. 

Industrial arts textbooks; Parts I, II, III, IV. 25c each. Prang 

Educational Co., Chicago. 
Graphic drawing books; I, II. Ill, IV., 15c each; and V. VI, VII, 

VIII, 20c each. Prang Educational Co. 
Progressive drawing books; I, II, III, IV, 15c each; and V. VI, 

VII, VIII. 20c each. Prang Educational Co. 
Applied arts drawing books; I, II, III, 15c each; and IV, V. VI, 

VII, VIII, 20c each. Atkinson. 

2. References for teachers 

Colby. Talks on drawing painting, making and decorating for 

primary teachers. (T) 

Liederer. Drawing made easy. (T) 
Newell. Construction work for schools without special eq.uipment. 

Thomas Charles Co., Chicago. 
■ Textbooks of art education; Book I, II, 2 5c each; III, 30 c; IV, 

V, VI, 45c each; VII, 55c. Prang Educational Co. 
Art education for high schools. Prang Educational Co. $1.25. 

This book will be usable by any teacher and furnishes added 

power to teach drawing. 

The following firms furnish complete lists of drawing supplies. 
Catalogue will be sent upon request. 

The A. Flanagan Co., Chicago. 
The Thomas Charles Co., Chicago 
Scott, Foresman and Co., Chicago. 
Atkinson, Mentzer and Co., Chicago. 
The Prang Art Co., Chicago. 

Educational magazines also furnish valuable ideas for drawing 
and teachers may find it desirable to substitute for the work in 
this outline, similar kinds of work suggested in their school jour- 
nals. 

It must be borne in mind that new applications of drawing and 
other manual arts are constantly being made and that it is neces- 
sary for the teacher to secure from time to time the latest books 
upon these subjects in order to keep her work abreast of the times. 



342 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



MANUAL TRAINING 



I. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 

1. Suggested equipment for manual training in rural schools 

Bench and vise $8.00 

Try square 6" 24 

Brace 8" sweep 50 

Each twist bits No. 2, 3, 4, lie each 33 

Each %", %", 1" center bits, 12c, 15c, and 17c each. . . .44 

Marking- gag-e 06 

Nail set 10 

Screw driver 4" blade 25 

Chisel l"x5%"long Pocket or Cabinet Chisels 31 

Chisel 1/2" X 51/2" long Pocket or Cabinet Chisels 27 

Claw hammer 13 oz 55 

Back saw 12" 67 

Rip saw 20" x 8 points 1.25 

Cross cut saw 20" X 10 points 1.25 

India oil stone, fine 6" x 1%" x %" in wooden box 75 

Spokeshave 12 

Smooth plane 9" x 2" cutter 1.60 

2 ft. two fold rule 17» 

Sloyd knife 2 1/2 " blade ' 20 

Screw driving bit 5/16" 10 

Bench duster 20 



$17.36 



2. Material. The following material will be necessary for the 
construction of the problems outlined. 

1 lb. 2 d. finishing nails 

1 lb. 3 d. finishing nails 

1 lb. 4 d. finishing nails 

1 lb. 6 d. finishing; nails 

1 lb. 8 d. finishing nails 

2 lbs. 10 d. finishing nails 

1 lb. 4 d. common nails 

2 lbs. 6 d. common nails 

1 qr. No. 1 % garnet sandpaper 

1 qr. No. garnet sandpaper 

1 pt. orange shellac 

1 pkt. 1%" X No. 10 flat headed Bright wood screws (for book 

rack) 
1 pkt. 1%" X No. 10 round headed blued wood screws (for book 

shelves) 



MANUAL TRAINING 



343 



COMMON KMOTS 




FIG. 22 
CLOVE HITCH AROUND 
BEAM 



FIG. 23 
ROUMO TURN AND 
TWO HALF HITCHES 




FIG. 24 , 

FISHERMANS 

BENO 



FIG 25 
ROLLING HITCH 



FiG. 27 

ENDLESS LOOP WHERE GREAT 

POWCR IS R£QUlRE.O 




FIG. 28 
BLACK WALLEfe 



344 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

3. 'General information 

a. The term 3d. and 4d. as applied to nails refers to the num- 
ber of pounds that one thousand of these particular nails will 
weigh. For example: one thousand 3d. nails will weigh 3 lbs. 

, 1000 i'?.. nails will weigh 4 pounds. 1000 6d. nails will weigh 6 
pounds, and so on. The word "penny" is a corruption of the Eng- 
lish word "pound" abbreviated to "pun" in England. The ab- 
breviation has been made to stand for penny in this country in- 
stead of pound as originally intended. 

b. Tools should be rubbed over with a little hot lard, vaseline, 
or oil to keep them from rusting before being placed away at the 
end of the school year. 

c. S2S applied to lumber means that the board has been planed 
on both sides by a machine at the lumber mill. S4S means all four 
sides planed. 

d. Lumber is sold by the board foot which is a board 1" 
thick, 12" wide and 12" long. A piece 1" thick x 6" wide x 24" 
long contains a board foot. A piece 2" thick x 6" wide and 24" 
long contains two board feet. 

e. To distinguish a ripsaw from a crosscut, grasp the saw 
by the handle and hold the end of the saw with the teeth on a 
level with the eye. If the teeth show a V groove down the center 
of the teeth it is a crosscut saw. If the teeth are square across 
it is a ripsaw. 

f. The back saw is a fine cross cut saw. 

g. A little soap or wax on the point of a nail or wood screw 
will allow it to be driven into hardwood very easily. 

h. Save worn sand paper; it is always useful for sanding 
shellac or fine surfaces. 

i. When placing away pieces of wood from period to period 
place the wood on edge so as to allow the air to get at both sides. 
This will help to pervent warping of the wood by allowing the dry- 
ing process to go on from both sides. 

j. To straighten a board that has become warped, wet the hol- 
low side and place it (the hollow side) on a flat surface until dry. 

k. Rubbing a little paraffin wax (or paraffin candle) on the 
sole or bottom of a plane keeps it from sticking to a surface. 

4. Sharpening chisels or plane cutters 

a. In sharpening, or as it is also called, whetting, a chisel or 
plane cutter it is not necessary to grind it except when the edge has 
become thick through whetting. 

b. An important point in whetting a chisel is to see that the 
oil stone is perfectly clean. Place a few drops of oil on the stone; 
any lubricating oil will do. The purpose of the oil is to wash out 
from the pores of the stone the small steel particles that get worn 
off the chisel when sharpening. 

c. Grasp the chisel with the beveled side down in the right 



MANUAL TRAINING 345 

hand by placing the thumb of the right hand on the upper flat side 
of the chisel, about li/^" from the edge and with the four fingers 
spread around the beveled side. Place the left hand over the right 
hand and the chisel and grasp it in a natural manner. Place the 
chisel on the oil stone at an angle slightly greater than the grind- 
ing bevel and push it backward and forward lightly. One or two 
strokes on the stone will be sufficient to turn a light wire (rough) 
edge over on the flat or opposite edge. This wire edge may be 
felt by pressing the finger lightly upward and over the edge and 
at right angles to it. If the wire edge cannot be felt the rubbing on 
the beveled side should be continued until the wire edge is turned 
over. When the wire edge is turned over place the chisel with the 
flat side down and beveled side up. Hold the chisel by placing the 
thumb of the right hand with two or three fingers of the left hand 
on the chisel close to the cutting -edge. It is most important that 
the chisel be held lldt on the stone and not allowed to be lifted 
up or rocked. One or two rubs in this position will be sufficient 
to turn the edge over (or off) to the opposite face. The two oper- 
ations are continued until the wire edge cannot be felt on either 
side. 

d. The important points are, that the wire edge must be 
rubbed up, and that after it is rubbed up it must be removed al- 
together from both sides. Stropping a chisel on a piece of leather 
is helpful after the whetting or sharpening. 

e. A spokeshave cutter is sharpened in the same manner as 
a chisel. To hold the cutter a saw kerf (saw cut) is made, with 
rip saw about 5-8" deep in the end of a piece of wood about 
1^" X 11/^" X 4'', and the cutter held in this kerf while whetting. 



II. COURSE OF STUDY 

1. General mstructions 

a. Become familiar with the correct names of the tools and 
always call them by their proper name. 

b. Understand the drawing thoroughly before starting to make 
the problem. 

c. Lay out the work carefully. Check each dimension over 
before proceeding further wuth the work. 

d. Remember that good work can only be accomplished with 
sharp tools. 

e. Have a place for each tool and keep it in that place when 
not in use. 

f. Make a free-hand sketch of the problem with all neces- 
sary dimensions, and work to free-hand sketch. 

g. Plan your work before beginning to use the tools. 

h. Do one thing at a time; finish one job before you start 
another. 



34 6 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COtJRSE OF STtlDY 





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MANUAL TRAINING 34'^ 

i. First learn to work accurately. The ability to work fast 
comes through practice. 

j. Use a block when sandpapering a flat surface. Never sand 
across the grain of the wood. 

k. Establish the following rule for planing a board: 

(1) Plane working face. Mark working face 1. 

(2) Plane working edge. Mark working edge 11. 

(3) Plane to thickness. 

(4) Plane one end. Note: By beveling a small corner 
on the waste stock in width the end may be planed straight across 
without splitting the opposite edge. 

(5) Plane other end in the same manner. 

(6) Plane to width. 

1. Holes for screws should always be bored through the first 
piece of stock. If the screw is being driven into hardwood, or into 
soft wood, where it would be likely to split the wood, a second 
hole of the same diameter as the root of the thread is bored through 
the second piece of stock. 

m. The cap of plane cutter should never be placed further 
than 1-16" from the cutting edge of the plane cutter. In planing 
cross grained stock the cap of the plane cuifer should be placed as 
close to the cutting edge as possible to eliminate the splitting of 
the shaving ahead of the cutting edge when planing. 

n. Possible problems for school use: 

(1) Drawer for bench 

(2) Sand paper box 

(3) Box for holding wood cuttings 

(4) Bench hook 

(5) Corn exhibits stands 

2. Instructions for corn drier. Read through all instructions 
for the problems before beginning to work. 

a. White pine will be the most suitable material to use for 
this problem. If nothing better can be found secure a piece of 
2" X 4" stock. Saw off a piece about 31%" long and saw this up 
the center of the four inch face. This will give two pieces ap- 
proximately 2", or less, square, depending on the size of the 2" x 4" 
stock. 

b. Select the best and easiest face to plane; plane up one face 
true. Test face with try square. In testing be sure the blade of 
the square lies perfectly flat, and does not rock on the surface. 
When face is planed up true, mark this first face with the mark 1 
with pencil. This mark is to let you know which is the first or 
working face at any time. 

c. Plane up second face ^adjacent to face 1). Use try square 
with beam held firmly against face 1. Be sure these fases are 
perfectly square to each other. Mark this face 11. 

d. Set marking gage to desired width (see drawing) and gage 



348 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



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MANUAL TRAINING 349 

width from face 1, Gage on both sides or edges. It is well at this 
time while the marking gage is set to gage same width from face 
11. Note: When gaging hold marking gage firmly against face 
and press lightly on the point or spur of the gage, and push gage 
from the body. 

e. Plane third face to gage lines. Test with try square from 
square face. 

f. Plane fourth face to gage lines. Test with try square from 
square face. The piece of stock should now be square on all four 
sides. 

g. About %" from one end of the stock square (draw) a line 
across faces 1 and 11. Use a sharp pencil. From this line, and 
on face 1 mark off centers (short lines) for nails (see drawing), 
and also the total length of corn drier. Always mark off as many 
dimensions as possible without moving the rule. Why? 

h. On face 11 lay off centers for nails. Note that the centers 
of these nails come midway between the centers of the nails on 
face 1. 

i. Square center lines for nails to opposite face with try 
square. In squaring across it is only necessary to tick the lines on 
the center and edge of the sfock instead of drawing them all the 
way across the face. Square the lines for the total length across 
face 1 and 11. The total length and centers for nails lengthwise 
will now be located. 

j. Set marking gage to half the width of stock and locate 
center for nails by ticking lightly through pencil lines. 

k. Saw off to the line the waste stock on each end with back 
saw. 

I. Locate center for hook by drawing diagonal lines from cor- 
ner to corner. 

m. Bore hole in end for hook. This hole should not be any 
larger than the root of the thread. 

n. Screw in the hook to the end of the thread. 

o. Make a guide for driving in nails at proper angle. This 
may be made by taking a small piece of stock about %" x 1" x 4" 
long and sawing one end to desired angle. Place nail against end 
when driving into the stock. 

p. Drive nails about 1%" into stock. Erase any pencil marks 
that remain. The corn drier is now finished. 

3. Seed testing box. Material: soft pine, Cyprus, or packing 
box material. 

a. Make a sketch of the problem from drawing. 

b. Make out bill of material: 

(1) 2 ends %"x3i4"xl6" 

(2) 2 sides %"x3i4"x21i/2" 

(3) 1 bottom 3/4"xl7%"x21i^" (may be made up from any 
width of stock). Find suitable material. 



35 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 




MANUAL TRAINING 351 

c. Cut material for sides and ends about %" to 1" longer 
and about y^" wider than drawing calls for. 

Note: Do not cut material for bottom until frame is nailed 
together. 

d. Plane up one working face on sides and ends. Test with 
try square and mark 1. 

e. Plane up one working edge on sides and ends. Mark 11. 

f. Gage thickness of stock (see drawing) on both edges and 
on all four pieces. Plane to thickness. 

g. Gage width (see drawing) on sides and ends and plane to 
width. i 1^ 

h. Square a line across working face and working edge about 
y^ of an inch from one end of pieces. 

i. With crosscut saw, and bearing lightly, saw off the waste 
stock to line just drawn; use vise for holding stock when sawing. 
This will now leave all four pieces squared up on one end. 

j. Lay off length of sides and the length of the ends from 
the square ends that have just been sawed. 

k. Saw sides and ends to correct length. 

1. Nail sides to ends. Use 8d. finishing nails. Hold end 
pieces in vise when nailing the first side to end. 

m. Test frame for squareness) by measuring across diagonally 
from corner to corner. Be sure frame is square before nailing on 
bottom. 

n. Place frame on bench and fit material together for bottom 
on frame. Mark off length of pieces for bottom from frame and 
saw to length. Note: Keep about 1-16" from line to allow for 
planing after the bottom has been nailed in place. 

o. Nail bottom on frame, using 6d. common nails. 

p. Set nails with nail set about 1-16" deep. 

q. Place box in vise and plane bottom flush (even) with sides. 
Note: In planing the end wood plane from both sides so that the 
end wood on the corner will not split off. 

r. The box is now finished. 

4. Bird house for Avrens. Bird houses may be made larger for 
other birds. Why the wren? The house wren is one of the most 
valuable of birds to have about a garden. Ninety-eight per cent of 
its food consists of animal material, mostly insects, which are In- 
jurious to garden plants. In hunting for this insect food the little 
wren Is most industrious, flitting noiselessly about with the great- 
est quickness and agility among the garden plants looking for 
plant lice, small caterpillars, beetles and even grasshoppers. It is 
especially valuable in clearing peas of plant lice. A still greater 
attraction in having this dainty bird about is Its wonderfully rich 
and beautiful song in which its endurance and enthusiasm are un- 
tiring. The wren takes kindly to almost any sort of a box or even 



352 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 




MANUAL TRAINING 353 

a tin can as a place for its nest and seems to love especially to be 
near some human habitation. 

a. Make a sketch of the problem. 

b. Make cut a bill of material 
2 sides w ^/^ x w x 1 

1 front w ^/2 X w X 1 

1 back w 1/^ X w X 1 

1 top w ^2 X w X 1 

1 bottom w % X w X 1 
Note: In getting out the material for the two sides It is pos- 
sible to cut the two sides from one piece of stock and that one saw- 
cut at the proper angle will separate the two pieces and make them 
exactly alike. How is this done? 

c- Cut material about %" longer and 14" wider than the draw- 
ing calls for. 

d. Plane up working face and edge of each piece. Mark work- 
ing faces and edges. 

e. Plane up stock to thickness. 

f. Plane one end square to working face on all pieces. Test 
with try square. Make small bevel' on corner for waste stock. This 
will prevent the corner splitting when planing. 

g. Lay out length from square end. Saw and plane all pieces, 
except bottom, to correct length. By leaving the bottom until 
sides, front, and back have been nailed, an accurate measurement 
for the bottom will be secured. 

h. Plane to width., 

i. Plane the two sides together in vise (sides may also be 
nailed together with small nails), and plane top to correct angle. 
Plane in the direction of the high side of the angle. 

j. Locate center of hole in front part and bore hole. Note: 
When point of bit projects through the other side stop boring, turn 
stock over and complete boring of hole from other side. Why is 
this necessary? 

k. Nail the ends, front and back pieces together with 4d. fin- 
ishing nails. Remember the front and back is located between the 
two sides. 

1. Plane the top corner of the front that projects above the 
angle of side at the top. 

m. Mark off, saw, and nail in bottom with 4d. finishing nails. 
Or, it is a good plan to have the bottom turn on a pivot secured 
by driving a nail through the center of the front part into the dot- 
torn, and one through the center of the back part into the tottom. 
One nail is now driven a little distance through the side into the 
bottom. This will hold it stationary. When it is necessary to 
clean out the bird house, draw the nail from the side, and bottom 
will turn round on pivot. To do this it will be necessary to bevel 
each side of the bottom to allow it to turn. 

n. Locate top in proper position and nail in place with 4d. 
common nails. 

23— S. M. 



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MANUAL TRAINING 355 

o. Paint with dark red, green, or brown paint, 
p. Keep paint brushes in water when not in use. 

5. Game Board. How to play the game. Secure a marble suffi- 
ciently large that it will not pass through the holes in the board. 
Roll the marble into the holes from the playing line. The value 
of the holes may be increased or decreased. — 5 means five points 
subtracted from the number of points made. The game may be 250 
or any other suitable number. 

.Make a sketch of the problem with lumber bill. Material: soft 
pine (free from knots), poplar, gumwood, or basswood will be suit- 
able. 

a. Secure material about %" longer and V^" wider. Strips of 
wood laths may be used for the strips that are fastened to the edge 
of board. These strips may be made 1/16" thicker than dimension 
on drawing. 

b. Select the best face and plane up board according to rule 
given on page 347. 

c. When board is properly planed lay out center lines for holes 
with a sharp pencil. Note: It will bejound easier to square the 
center lines across the board first and then tick the center length- 
wise on these lines. 

d. With brace and %" center bit bore holes in board. Re- 
member to rebore from other side when point of bit projects 
through. Why is this necessary? 

e. Erase all pencil marks; select the best side of the board 
for the top side, and sand carefully with sandpaper wrapped around 
a block of wood. Mark numbers at holes neatly with pencil. 

f. Plane up strips for edge. Do not plane ends of strips. Why 
not? 

g. Saw one end of each short strip square. 

h. Place end strips in position on board with square end flush 
with edge of beard. Mark off from board and saw to length. 

i. Nail on end strips with 3d. finishing nails. 

j. Saw one end of each side strip square. 

k. Place the side strips in position and mark off length. Saw 
to length. 

1. Nail on side strips. 

m. If necessary plane around outside of strips. 

n. Round off inside and outside corners of strips with sand- 
paper. 

o. Plane up cross strip for bottom. Do not plane ends. 

p. Saw off cross strip to length. 

q. Nail cross strip in place to bottom with 3d. finishing nails. 

r. Round corners on cross strip. Use plane and then sand- 
paper. 

s. Finish: Give the entire game board one coat of orange shel- 
lac. Allow shellac twenty minutes to dry, sand down lightly with 
fine worn sandpaper. Dust board and apply a second coat of shel- 



356 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 




MANUAL TRAINING 357 

lac. Allow shellac thirty minutes to dry and then sand down 
lightly. Shellac should be applied quickly and in direction of the 
grain of the wood. 

t. Go over pencil figures at holes and playing line with ink. 
This should complete the game board. 

6. Book rack. Make sketch, of problem and bill of material. 

a. Oak, gumwood, chestnut or ash, will be suitable material 
for this problem. 

b. In cutting out the stock it is a good plan to keep the ends 
of the book rack in one piece until planed. By doing this the two 
ends may be planed as one piece. 

Note: One end of the end pieces only needs to be planed. Why? 
The grain of the end pieces should run vertically. 

c. Plane stock to dimensions according to rule for planing. 

d. Layout ends. A good plan for laying out the ends is to 
take a sheet of note paper, fold it over double and use the fold or 
crease as the center line of pattern for the end. Eveep folded and 
lay out the full length and half the width of the design. The taper 
on the sides is drawn in and the round of the top sketched in. The 
pattern is then cut out. After opening the pattern it is placed 
flush with the squared end of stock and the design transferred to 
the end piece. 

e. Saw out the rounded ends with cross cut saw and finish 
them before planing taper on sides. In rounding the tops of the 
ends place both ends together in vise. Use smooth plane on the 
round end to rough down close to line; finish with spokeshave. In 
using plane and spokeshave, work from the side to the center or 
high point. Test for squareness with try square. 

f. Sand ends; use a block when sanding. Care should bt 
taken in sanding not to round surfaces that are intended to be 
perfectly flat. 

g. Layout dado (Vg" deep) on base. Note: In doing this 
measure the dimension (1") from each end and equare line across 
the base with sloyd knife. Place the two ends in proper position 
with the end just covering the line drawn across the base. Mark 
off thickness of end with knife, and square line across. Note: 
End must fit tightly into dado. 

h. Gage depth of dado (Vs") between lines on edges. Be care- 
ful not to gage beyond lines of dado. 

i. Saw to depth. Be sure to saw in inside of lines. 

j. Make another saw cut in center of waste stock of dado; this 
will enable all the waste stock to be removed more readily. 

k. Use V2'' chisel to take out waste stock in dado; first work 
down to the lines on both edges and then work across the center. 
Test trueness of dado with try square' from edge to edge. 

1. Bore three holes for screws (%"xNo. 10) through each 
dadoed part of the base. Examine screws before boring holes. 



358 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

m. tZlountersink for head of screws. Use chisel with beveled 
side down for countersinking. 

n. Place end in vise and place base on end in proper position. 
Mark position of center hole only, on end. Remove base and bore 
center hole. This hole is to be the size of the screw at the root 
of the thread. 

o. Sand base. 

p. Replace base and drive in center screw. If end fits prop- 
erly bore the remaining holes through base into the end, and drive 
in screws. The screws should be driven in slightly under the flush 
of base. 

q. One small piece of felt placed at each corner and center 
of the base will prevent the book rack scratching a surface. Use 
shellac or cold glue to fasten felt to base. 

r. The finish for book rack may be two coats of shellac (nat- 
ural finish) ; or it may be stained and given one coat of shellac 
and waxed; or it may be stained and this followed by two coats 
of shellac. 

7. Book shelves. Make a sketch of the problem. Make out lum- 
ber bill. 

a. Oak, chestnut, ash or gumwood will be suitable material 
for this problem. In assembling use roundheaded blued screws 
ll^"xNo. 10. 

b. Secure and cut material to approximate dimensions. 

c. Plane up stock. Note: The ends of posts and slats may 
be planed if placed in vise edge to edge, with the corner supported 
by a piece of scrap stock to prevent corner from splitting off when 
planing. How is this done? 

d. Have shelves planed and sanded before laying out dado. 

e. Lay out dado by placing posts edge to edge in vise with face 
up and squaring lines for dado across all four posts at the same 
time. The dado should be a tight fit for the shelves. The narrow 
slats are not dadoed. 

f. Gage for depth of dado on both edges. Do not gage beyond 
lines for dado. Gage on both edges. 

g. Saw to depth of dado with back saw. Be sure to saw on 
waste stock. 

h Chisel out waste stock as in book rack. Chisel from both 
edges. 

i. Locate and bore holes for round headed screws. Holes for 
round headed screws are never countersunk. When is counter- 
sinking done? 

j. Round tops of posts and slats sHghtly with coarse, and then 
with fine sandpaper. 

k. Sand posts and slats. 



MANUAL TRAINING 



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1. Assemble by screwing posts to shelves. The slots in the 
roundheaded screws should be turned in the direction of the grain 
of the wood. 

m. Test if the problem is square by measuring diagonally 
across extreme corners. 

n. Screw slats in place. 

o. Finish: Stain with any prepared stain. When dry follow 
with a coat of shellac. Sand and apply one or two coats of pre- 
pared wax. 



III. REFERENCES 



Allen & Cotton. Manual training for conimon schools. (T) 

Blackburn. Problems in farm woodwork. (T 

Burton. Shop projects based on community problems. Voca- 
tional Supply Co., Muncie, Ind. 

Cobleigh. Handy farm devices and how to make them. (T) 

Roehl. Manual training in rural schools. Bruce Publishing Co., 
Milwaukee. 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 361 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



I. GENJIRAL SUGGESTIONS 

While the program of the country-school teacher is crowded with 
subjects, and it would seem that little time could be taken for ad- 
ditional work, the necessity for presenting some industrial work in 
all schools is so obvious and the desire for this work so universal, 
that if the progressive teacher will find time for adding cooking 
an^ sewing to the curriculum, she will be amply repaid for her ef- 
forts by the increased and improved attendance, awakening of in- 
terest in slow pupils, and by the development of community spirit 
through these lines of work. 

1. Object of the work. The reasons for recommending that cook- 
ing and sewing be taught in the rural schools are: (a) to retain 
pupils in school by giving them some practical instruction and in- 
dustrial training; (b) To create, foster, and develop in the girls of 
the state an interest in home work, home life, and home making. 

2. School fairs and contests. Interest in industrial work may 
be aroused in a community through school fairs and contests. Fairs 
may be held in the fall in connection with the Harvest Festival, 
'Corn Show, or the County Fair. At most county fairs prizes are 
offered for work done by pupils in the rural schools. This list of 
prizes could be increased to include work in cooking and sewing 
done by the pupils as part of school work, or as work done as the 
result of school instruction. 

Winter fairs, held at school or at the town hall, add to the in- 
terest in this work and make the members of the community famil- 
iar with the work being done at school. Prizes may be offered for 
the best loaf of bread, the best rolls, cake, pie, the smoothest cus- 
tard or the most appetizing salad, and rules for judging or scor- 
ing bread, cake, etc., may be sent to parents so that they will know 
what qualities are considered desirable, in the products. Prizes 
should also be offered for 'the best patching, stocking and linen 
darning, buttonholes, child's dress, corset cover, shirt waist, and 
cotton dress. The fair may be held in conjunction with a spelling 



362 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

contest, some school entertainment, or a Christmas candy sale, and 
through friendly rivalry interest in industrial work is developed. 

Work of this kind is of inestimable value because of the com- 
munity spirit developed, the interest taken in the work, and the 
opportunity for pupils to compare their work and find out how to 
improve it. 

3 Girls' clubs. Girls' clubs may be formed for the purpose of 
studying domestic science. These clubs may meet at the school, at 
the homes of the members, but preferably at the home of some 
large hearted woman who is interested in the work and who will 
help to make the club a social center for the girls. The girls may 
secure any books desired from the free circulating libraries, also 
government bulletins, and study house planning, house decoration 
and furnishing, division of the family income, general housekeeping, 
and textiles. , 

A good plan would bo for the girls to do all the general house- 
work at home, for a day at a time, following a definite plan agreed 
upon, and report on their success. Studies may be made of the 
homes of the members of the club to learn about real house plan- 
ning, furnishing, labor saying devices, etc., and to learn how to 
solve some of the every day problems of managing a home. 

Mothers would be interested in a club of this kind, and much 
might be learned from them because of their experience in spend- 
ing the family income judiciously, and in general housekeeping. 

Girls' canning clubs are meeting with success in many places. 
The girls raise the fruit, tomatoes, and other vegetables, and come 
together and carry on a small canning Industry. A Farmers' Bul- 
letin has recently been issued on this subject, explaining how this 
work may be done successfully. 

4. Library lessons. Teach the lesson under the heading "Do- 
mestic Science" given on page 102 of the department publication 
Lessons on the Use of the School Library. 



II. OUTLINE OF WORK 

Cooking 

J. School lunches. School lunches are an admirable way to 
teach the nutritive value of foods, planning balanced meals, table 
manners, courtesy, sharing work and responsibility, in addition to 
furnishing one warm dish for the otherwise cold and sometimes 
unattractive lunch. This warm dish may be served one day in 
the week or oftener if the teacher desires. The various ingredients 
needed should be brought from home by different pupils in turn, 
and the food should be prepared by the bidet pupils and be ready 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 363 

to serve as soon as school is dismissed for the noon hour. Pupils 
should wash their hands and then return to their desks and spread 
paper napkins as tablecloth, and place knife, fork, and plate in 
proper place. The food should be served and passed by the pupils 
and the work of clearing and dishwashing should be done by all 
pupils in turn. The serving of one warm dish at noon in the rural 
school makes the noon hour a pleasant social time where much 
can be taught of common social usages, that will be of use to the 
pupils later in life. 

The lunch of the average boy and girl is not often planned 
to supply the right food needed for the growing body. It is usually 
put together in a hurried manner and is often unattractive and 
unappetizing. If the teacher would invite all the mothers to school 
on a certain afternoon and talk over the planning of nutritious 
lunches, tell what she proposes to have the girls prepare for the 
warm dish for several weeks ahead, give the mothers some idea of 
what constitutes a balanced meal, hearty cooperation would be se- 
cured. All of this work is of greater value if it is| made a com- 
munity work. The Farmers' Bulletin on Lunches for School Chil- 
dren will be found helpful to the teacher. 

a. Equipment needed for serving school lunch. The work is 
to be limited to the preparation of a hot article of food for the 
noon lunch. 

The equipment given below is such as can be used on the ordinary 
wood stoves found in country schools. Each child should furnish his 
individual equipment consisting of plate, cup, teaspoon, knife, and 
fork. 

Equipment (10 to 15 pupils.) 

Teakettle $ .85 

Coffeepot 50 

6. qt. granite kettle with cover 50 

2 qt. granite pan to fit in kettle :25 

Cover for 2 qt. pan 05 

Prying pan .20 

Fine wire strainer 10 

Small dish pan ,25 

1 tin measuring cup .05 

2 tablespoons 10 

2 teaspoons 12 

2 steel knives (sharp) 10 

2 steel forks 10 

1 paring knife .05 

2 plates 10 

2 cups 10 

2 saucers 10 

1 3 qt. earthen bowl 10 

1 vegetable brush 05 

Dish towels 25 

Total $3 92 



364 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

b. The following foods may be quickly and easily prepared, 
at a moderate cost, for noon lunch: 

Green corn soup Dried fruits, as prunes, apricots, etc. 
Tomato soup Macaroni and cheese 
Pea soup Brown Betty pudding- 
Potato soup Biscuit 
Corn chowder Apple dumplings 
Baked apples Gingerbread 
Baked potatoes Cookies 
Creamed potatoes Custard 

Creamed carrots Doughnuts and cocoa or cereal coffee 

Scalloped potatoes Rice and cheese 

Codfish balls Mush and milk 

Bacon and eg-gs Potato or cabbage salad 

Bacon and corn Any vegetable in season, served 
Shepherd's pie with white sauce. 

Apple sauce 

2. Ctookiiig lessons for school work. Cooking lessons given in 
school will require some equipment and a small expenditure of 
money for supplies. A cupboard made with shelves enough to hold 
equipment and supplies, should be placed near the stove and table. 
This cupboard should have either doors or a curtain in front. A 
comimon kitchen table, containing a drawer to hold utensils in con- 
stant use will be found necessary. Some schools have a cooking 
cabinet. An oil stove with two burners and an oven, makes the 
most satisfactory stove. 

As there is but little surplus room in the country school, equip- 
ment enough for four pupils to work at a time, two pupils work- 
ing together, will be deemed sufficient. The other pupils may ob- 
serve, criticise and furnish information obtained from books and 
Farmers' Bulletins concerning the nutritive value of the food pre- 
pared, and its place in the diet. 

Pupils should study the structure of foods, to learn how heat 
affects them. They should find the composition of common foods 
and, learn the uses of the various foods to the body. They should 
learn to plan nutritious, economical, and appetizing meals, and be 
able to prepare and serve them in a limited period of time. As 
not much of the preparation of meals can be undertaken at school, 
the teacher should give instruction and advice in this work and 
have the pupils prepare the meals at home. When the report on 
this home work is brought to the teacher, properly signed by the 
mother, school credit should be given for the work. 

3. School credit for home work. As little can be accomplished 
if this work is pursued for but 60 minutes weekly, and as it does 
not seem advisable to recommend that more time be taken from 
other lines of work pupils should be required to practice at home 
what is learned at school, to try new receipts given by the teacher, 
to report on the success or failure of each effort, to bring in a 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 365 

weekly report of all housework done at home, and credit should 
be given for this work. 

This home work not only makes perfect by practice the things 
taught at school, but it interests the. mother in the work done at 
school, and the teacher in the work done at home. This brings 
about a very desirable spirit for cooperation and harmony between 
parent and teacher and keeps the teacher in touch with some of 
the interests and problems in the pupils' lives. 

Because the work is to be carried out in the home, under the 
supervision of the mother, the teacher is compelled to make her 
work practical and suited to the home needs of the pupils. On 
the other hand the mother will be kept in touch with modern meth- 
ods of doing work. A greater sympathy and understanding be- 
tween mother and teacher results, and through this method, school 
and home work in unison. 

School credit should also be given for the development of habits 
of personal hygiene, as care of the teeth, bathing, sleeping with 
window open, care of the pupil's own room. Reports of work done 
should be written out by the pupils, signed by the mothers, and 
kept on file at school; and some system of credit should be fol- 
lowed. 

4. Equipment for cooking lessons. The cost of the following 

equipment, exclusive of the stove, is about $10. The stove may 
be purchased for from $2.50 to $8.00. 

Two burner oil stove 

Oven to fit stove 

Drip pan to fit oven $0.20 

Teakettle 50 

Pail for water 20 

Garbage pail 50 

Two dish pans 50 

Two paring knives 20 

Two steel knives 20 

Two steel forks 20 

Pour teaspoons 20 

Two tablespoons 10 

One Dover egg beater 15 

One spoon egg beater 10 

Two one quart bowls 20 

One sieve to fit bowl $0.05 

Two measuring cups .10 

Two one pint tin basins 10 

Two one quart double boilers 70 

Two one quart stew pans 50 

Two rolling pins . , lo 

Two biscuit cutters 10 

Two small frying pans 20 

Two bread pans .' 20 

One vegetable brush 05 

One utility pan 10 

One pie plate * 10 

One tray * 1 

One two quart stew pan 80 



366 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



One bread knife 25 

One butcher knife 25 

4 white plates, small 40 

4 cups and saucers 40 

4 white plates, large 40 

One grater 05 

2 muffin pans 10 

1 large mixing bowl, 2 quart ; 25 

One soap dish 05 

One lemon squeezer 10 

One match box ... 05 

One broiler 05 

One cork screw 05 

One can opener 05 

One creamer and sugar 25 

One water pitcher 15 

Total : $10.00 

A board for cutting bread, meat, cake, etc, and a molding board 
may be made by the boys. Dish towels and dish cloths made from 
flour sacks, and holders, may be made in the sewing class. 

5. Suggested lessons. The following lessons are suggested for 
work in the school. It is not intended that this outline shall be 
followed exactly. A teacher may plan her own course, or sub- 
stitute any lessons which she may care to teach. It should be kept 
in mind, however, that not many candy lessons are necessary or 
desirable and that there should be no "fancy dishes" prepared and 
that all lessons should be moderate in cost. The aim is to teach 
the fundamentals in cooking, and if these fundamentals are well 
taught, the pupils will be able to advance to more elaborate cook- 
ing in their home work. It is of great importance that they learn 
to plan nutritious meals, and^ to serve them in an attractive 
manner. 

a. A general lesson on care of the stove, how to regulate the oven, 
how to keep the burners clean; how to work neatly, quickly, and ac- 
curately; how to measure correctly; should precede the first cooking 
lesson. 

b. Preparation of vegetables for cooking: — potatoes, carrots, cel- 
ery, asparagus, or any vegetables in season, served with White Sauce, 
also canning and jelly making. 

c. Rice, served with cream and sugar, date sauce, or prepared 
with grated cheese and baked. 

d. Plain corn starch mold, or chocolate corn starch mold, served 
with cream and sugar. 

e. Composition and nutritive value of eggs. Season for packing, 
best time of the year to serve them. Poached, boiled, scrambled, om- 
elet, fried or stuffed. 

f. Soda and sour milk as a leavening agent. 
Griddle cakes, Johnny cake, or ginger bread. 

g. Baking powder as a leavening agent. 
Biscuit, apple dumpling, or short cake. 

h. Class exercise in planning an economical, nutritious, and ap- 
petizing breakfast. Serving. 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 367 

i. Cooking the breakfast, previously planned, and serving it to 
four pupils. 

j. Cream soups, as potato, tomato, corn, or pea. 

k. Yeast as a leavening agent. 

1. Bread and rolls. 

m. Cookies. 

n. Plain cake and frosting. 

o. Sponge cake, 

p. Apple or lemon pie. 

q. Meat loaf with or without tomato sauce. 

r. Meat stew with dumplings. 

s. Simmered steak or shepherd's pie. 

t. Cooked salad dressing, cabbage, potato, banana, or combina- 
tion salad. 

u. Desserts; as custard, rice, tapioca, or bread pudding. 

V. Planning and serving a supper or lunch. 

Sewing 

1. Object of teaching sewing 

To work neatly and accurately 

To teach hand sewing 

To teach how to keep clothing in repair 

To teach economy in buying and cutting 

To direct and guide taste in selecting clothing 

To teach pupils to make their owjn clothes 

To teach use and care of sewing machine, when possible 

Not to teach fancy work' 

2. Equipment needed for pupils 

A thimble 

A pair of scissors 

A tape line 

A package of Number 8 needles 

A spool of number 60 white cotton thread 

3. Additional equipment needed at school 

Several papers of pins 

Thread, black and white, assorted numbers 

A large pair of shears 

An emery bag 

A piece of wax 

Needles, assorted sizes 

Tapestry needles 

Spools of colored silk or colored cotton 

Canvas for the first work 

A sewing machine, if possible 

4. Suggesjtions for teachers 

Have pupils sit erect while at work, with feet squarely on the 
floor and base of spine against the back of the seat or desk. 

Do not let pupils rest their elbows on the desks because the work 
should be held high enough so that the erect position can be main- 
tained and there is no strain on the eyes. 

Always insist that pupils use their thimbles while sewing. 

Always insist that all imperfect work shall be ripped out and 
done over until good work results. 

Teach pupils how to pull threads so as to secure a straight edge. 



368 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

5. Outline for work 

Teach the various stitches in common use, using coarse tapestry 
needle and canvas. The model may be used for a needle book or a 
pin cushion. Apply stitches by making a work bag. This bag may 
be of gingham or linen, and the pupil may place her initial in cross- 
stitch design on the bag. 

Seams and hems. Apply on small sewing, work, or fancy apron. 

Darning. Apply on stocking and on flannel. 

Hemming of towels and table linen and sewing on tape. Pupils may 
hem dish towels for school or home, and may bring napkins from home 
to hem. 

Patching, apply on clothing. 

Other articles which may be made are, bean bag, iron holder, 
cheese cloth duster, broom cover, pillow case, dresser scarf, table 
runner or child's dress. 

Make simple garments as drawers, corset cover, night dress, or other 
underwear. Use bought patterns, some of which may be obtained free 
if for school use. 

Make waist or dress. 

Have pupils learn to know the different kinds of cotton materials 
and make a simple study of the production, manufacture, and cost of 
materials. 

Teach methods of shrinking and how to set color. 

Teach care of clothing, careful selection, and economy of buying. 

Reference, Blair's Sewing Tablets or Goodwin's Sewing Lessons. 



III. REFERENCES 

1. List of Farmers' Bulletins which may be obtained free from 
Secretary- of Agriculture, AVashington, J). O. 

34 Meats: composition and cooking- 

85 Fish as food 

9 3 Sugar as food 

121 Beans, peas, and other legumes as food 

128 Eggs and their uses as food 

131 Household tests for detection of oleomargarine and reno- 
vated butter 

142 Nutrition and nutritive value of food 

16 6 Cheese making on the farm 

175 Home manufacture and use of unfermented grape juice 

182 Poultry as food 

20*3 Canned fruits, preserves and jellies 

241 Butter making on the farm 

249 Cereal breakfast foods 

256 Preparation of vegetables for the table 

293 Use of fruit as food 

295 Potatoes and other root crops as food 

298 Pood value of corn and corn products 

332 Nuts and their uses as food 

348 Bacteria in milk " i--"'^ • 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE 369 

359 Canning Vegetables in the home 

363 The use of milk as food 

375 Care of food in the home 

389 Bread and bread making 

391 Economical use of meat in the home 

413 The care of milk and its use in the home 

270 Modern conveniences for the farm hom6 

377 Harmfulness of headache mixtures 

521 Canning tomatoes at home and in club work 
Comforts and conveniences in farmers' homes 

2. Excellent receipts for lessons will be found in the following 
books. 

Wisconsin farmers' institute cook book 
Wisconsin farmers* institute reports. 

24— S. M. 



370 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



DIPLOMA EXAMINATIONS 



1. Importance 

a. When a pupil receives a common school diploma stating that 
he has completed the course of study in the school of his home district, 
he is entitled to have his high school or his State graded school (9th 
and 10th grade) tuition paid by the town in which he lives, In case he 
attends high school in some other district. To grant a diploma be- 
fore a pupil is able to do high school work creditably is an injustice 
to the taxpayers of the town. 

b. If a pupil is granted a diploma before he is sufficiently mature 
and able to do good high school work, the local school as well as the 
teacher acquires a bad standing educationally. On the other hand, 
well prepared pupils are a credit to the country school and the coun- 
try teacher. 

c. The diploma examination is a strong factor in determining not 
only the standard for graduation but the character of the work to be 
done in the schools especially the last year or two of the course. 
Teachers will emphasize in the various classes the work which is called 
for in the examination. A superintendent indicates, therefore, lo a 
great extent, the phases of the work that shall receive the greatest at- 
tention. 

2. Methods of conducting diploma examinations. There are two 
general methods used in the state. 

a. Examinations are held in the local schools and conducted by 
the teachers. Questions are furnished by the county superintendent. 
Each teacher examines her own pupils, usually marks the papers, and 
then forwards the manuscript to the county superintendent's office. 

b. Examinations are held at certain central points in the county, 
and are conducted by a member of an examining board ap- 
pointed by the county superintendent. Questions are prepared by the 
county superintendent and the manuscripts are forwarded to his office 
after the exam^ination. The papers are graded in the superintendent's 
office either by himself or by teachers appointed by him. Sometimes 
the examiner marks the papers before they are forwarded to the 
superintendent. 

There are several variations of these two general plans. 
As a rule the first method is very unsatisfactory to all who are 
anxious to have the diploma mean something. The teacher who has a 



DIPLOMA EXAMINATIONS 371 

high standard suffers because of the laxity of the examination in a 
neighboring district. Parents have complained, as have also high- 
school teachers. Because of the loose way in which the examination 
is frequently conducted, children have little respect for it. 

The central plan has several advantages and should be introduced 
in some form in all counties. The system is a more fair one and gives 
the pupils as well as the parents an assurance that the diplomas have 
been earned. Meeting in a central place and taking the examination 
is a training in itself. The objection offered by some teachers and 
parents that pupils get excited in strange surroundings has no validity. 
Strong teachers are not afraid to have their pupils tested, but weak 
ones frequently like to be around to give the children help. The only 
valid objection to the central system is the cost in case the children 
have to travel a considerable distance. 

3. Factors that should be considered in granting diplomas 

a. The regular oral work of the pupils in the various classes. 

b. The regular written work of the pupils in school. 

c. The general intelligence of the pupils; their resourcefulness in 
accomplishing school work. 

d. The general reading done by the pupils; the ability to use the 
library, especially the reference books. 

e. The final examination paper. 

4. Suggestions to county superintendents 

a. Get the names of the prospective graduates as early in the year 
as possible. Then as you and the supervising teachers visit the 
schools, take special note of these pupils with reference to their oral 
recitation work, their written work, their ability to find and use in- 
formation, their general intelligence, etc. Make records of these pupils 
and consult the records after the examination papers have been marked. 
Become acquainted with the pupils personally and give them sug- 
gestions regarding their work. It is also well to speak to the schools 
regarding work that you deem especially important. 

b. About the time of the examination request each teacher to send 
you a statement regarding the work of each of her applicants. Such 
statement might include also the pupil's attitude toward his work, his 
habits, his attendance, and any other items which might be of value 
to the superintendent. Class standings, however, are likely to be of 
little value, as the standards of different teachers vary. 

c. Use discretion in appointing the members of the examining 
board. Not only should an examiner be capable but he should be tact- 
ful and sympathetic, and able to manage children. 

d. If possible, have the examiner give each pupil a short oral 
test. This is especially desirable in reading. 

e. Do not ask questions calling merely for isolated and scrappy 
information. Let the information called for be important. Let the 
questions test thought power and not simply memory. 

f. The questions you ask indicate to the teacher and the pupils 



372 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

what you consider important. Let your questions be a guide to them 
in determining the essentials in the various subjects. Let them see 
that you are guided by the Manual in the preparation of the questions. 

g. It is well in a country school diploma examination to give the 
children an opportunity to omit one or two questions out of a set. 
Make the directions specific. 

h. Pupils may be given an opportunity to write on a subject when 
they have finished it. In this way they may write on some subjects 
one year and on others the next year. 

i. Calculate carefully the time that should be allowed to answer 
each set of questions. 

j. Neatness of manuscripts and arrangement of work should be 
considered in the grading of papers. 

k. Be specific in your requirements in case you intend to 
give credit for work the pupils bring to the examination, such 
as school district maps, etc. 

1. As a rule the pupils should not take the diploma examina- 
tion until .they are twelve years of age and until they have finished 
some of the work definitely outlined in the course of study, such 
as physiology and hygiene, geography, etc. 

m. In some counties two kinds of diplomas are granted, thus 
giving the pupils in many cases an incentive to return to their 
own school for another year and work for a greater mastery of 
the common branches. The higher grade diploma is a recognition 
of stronger work done. 

5. Suggestions to teachers 

a. Give the pupils in the upper and intermediate classes prac- 
tice in written tests. Grade the papers carefully and show the chil- 
dren what errors and omissions they made. 

b. Introduce the time element into your tests. Do not allow 
a longer time than necessary. 

c. Give frequent reviews. Train pupils to make outlines when 
studying their lessons and to use these outlines in their recitations 
and review exercises. 

d. Give the pupils a preliminary examination a short time 
before the regular diploma examination. Do not let pupils write 
at the county superintendent's examination if they are not ready 
for it. When pupils write several times on a subject before pass- 
ing, they are likely to become discouraged. 

e. Demand neatness and orderly arrangement in the exami- 
nation work. 

f. Do good and thorough work with the primary and inter- 
mediate pupils. This is the most effective way to prepare for good 
examination papers in the diploma exiamination. The success of 
your work does not depend entirely upon the number of graduates 
you have. 

g. Discover the causes for the weaknesses and difficulties that 



DIPLOMA EXAMINATIONS 373 

your pupils have. Then remove the difficulties by efficient teach- 
ing — not merely by cramming. 

h. Be ready to show the .pupils' work, good and poor, to the 
^ ®ounty superintendent and the supervising teacher. Ask questions 
^r«oncerning difficultly you have encountered. 

i. Talk with the parents about thef children's work. Encour- 
age thoroughness and mastery of the fundamentals. Discourage 
unwise and hasty promotion. 

j. Train the pupils in making sets of test questions in the va- 
rious subjects. 

k. Do not be too anxious to teach higher subjects not included 
in the common school course. It is better to give the pupils a 
mastery of the fundamental branches. 

1. Send to the county superintendent early in the year a list 
of the pupils you think may finish. Send the county superintend- 
ent a statement concerning each pupil at the time of the diploma 
examination. 

6. Pupils vi^ho have finished the course of study. Teachers 
should do all they can to have the children of the district get as 
much from the school work as possible. It frequently happens that 
a pupil who has secured a diploma cannot attend a high school and 
can come back to the country school for another year. Special 
classes cannot, as a rule, be formed for such pupils, but it may be 
possible to give them special work. 

a. They may be given supplementary work in the subjects 
they are taking with the upper grade pupils. Extra topics may be 
given them to look up and report upon. In this way they may be 
doing some work that is much superior to that of the other mem- 
bers of the class. 

b. They may do considerable extra reading from the books 
in the library. 

c. They may be given special topics in connection with, or 
outside of the regular subjects. They may outline these topics and 
present them in general exercises or in some of the other school 
work. 

d. They may be excused from the recitation whenever the 
other members of the class have the simpler exercises. At such 
times they may be assigned special work. 

e. Considerable supplementary work can be found in nature 
study, agriculture, history, and civics which may be taken up and 
worked out by advanced pupils. 

f. In some instances where the pupils are unusually strong 
in the common branches, wJtiere the school is of small size, and 
where the teacher is capable of handling an extra subject or two, 
arrangements may be made between the school board and the 
teacher to teach such advanced subjects as may be deemed ad- 
visable. In such cases the advice of the county superintendent should 
be obtained. 



374 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



A STANDARD ONE- TEACHER COUNTRY 

SCHOOL 



Inquiries frequently come to the State Superintendent's office 
with reference to school buildings and equipment. Many districts 
have the ability and also the desire to get the best for the chil- 
dren. As a guide to such districts the following suggestions are 
given : 

I. SCHOOL GROUNDS 

1. Area at least one acre on well-drained land, made smooth or 
level. 

2. Fenced with a close mesh wiTe fence, using steel posts not 
over 10 ft. apart. 

3. Platted into lawn and playground for large and small chil- 
dren. 

4. Corners and sides properly planted with shrubbery and trees. 
Some neat flower beds well cared for. 

5. Located far from railroads, factories or other noisy places 
and far from places where intoxicants are manufactured or sold. 

6. Should contain a good well or a spring. 

7. Should contain well built outbuildings, properly screened from 
the view of the road and schoolhouse. These buildings should be 
ventilated by a tube extending from the vault out through the roof, 
lighted, and the door and windows screened from flies. 

8. Should contain some of the following conveniences for play 
and playground apparatus: 

a. A low, strong swing 

b. A giant stride 

c. Horizontal barl" 

d. A modern teeter 

e. A coaster slide 

f. A volley ball (A basket ball may be used for the purpose) 

g. A sand bin about 8x12 feet, placed in some shady corner 
of the grounds. 

h. A smooth, straight running track 
i. Baseball grounds 
k. Croquet set 

Note. For suggrestions as to making or securing playground ap- 
paratus, see Plays and Games for Schools, sent to all schools in 1911 
by the State Superintendent. 



STANDARD SCHOOL 375 

9. Flag pole from 25 to 35 feet high, from which there flies 
when school is in session (weather permitting) an American flag, 
of good bunting and in good condition, about 4 by 8 feet or 5 
by 10 feet. The flag is to be taken down when school closes in the 
evening and hoisted before school opens in the morning. A color 
guard should be appointed for this purpose. See Memorial Day 
Annual of 1916, p. 29. 

10. Good walks should be provided from the road to the school- 
house and from the schoolhouse to the outbuildings. Gravel should 
be placed wherever necessary. 



n. SCHOOL BUELDING 

1. Position and general arrangement 

a. If possible, it should face the south. 

b. The main room should be 23x32 and 12 feet high. 

c. In addition to the main room the building should contain a 
teacher's room, two cloak rooms, and an alcove off the main room 
for the library. If an alcove for the library is not provided there 
should be a "library corner" as suggested in "Lessons in the Use 
of the School Library," p. 10. 

d. There should be a basement under the whole building at 
least 9 ft. high divided into wood and furnace rooms, and domestic 
science and manual training apartments where children may play 
on stormy days and where they may at time^ do handwork under 
the direction of the teacher. 

e. Doors and windows screened. 

2. Lighting 

a. Glass area should be at least one-fifth of the floor space. 
One window at least should be placed so that sunlight may be ad- 
mitted. 

B. The light should come from the left and from the upper 
part of the rear of the room. No windows should be placed within 
eight feet of the front of the room. The window sills of those in 
the rear of the room should be on a level with the center of the 
windows on the side of room or about QVz ft. from the floor. All 
windows should be so constructed that they can readily be opened 
for ventilation purposes. 

c. The windows should be placed close together, not with 
large spaces between them. They should extend to within six or 
eight inches of the ceiling. The window shades should be so ad- 
justed that any part of the window can be covered. 

d. Light tan canvas adjustable shades should be used. 



376 MANUAL 0^ THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 

3. Heating and ventilation 

a. A furnace that is sufficiently large to heat the room easily 
should be provided. It should he properly placed by someone who 
is familiar with the installation of furnaces in schoolhouses. Un- 
less a thoroughly competent, experienced, and responsible person 
installs the furnace, a good jacketed stove with proper facilities 
for ventilation is likely to prove more satisfactory. A fresh air 
intake large enough to supply the room with fresh air properly 
heated in accordance with the rules of the State Board of Health 
should be provided. Provision should also be made to keep the 
air properly supplied with moisture. The temperature of the room 
should be 68 degrees and the humidity not less than. 40 per cent. 

b. The chimney should be so constructed that it can handle 
easily both the smoke and the foul air. The two should escape 
through two seperate flues and be independent of each other. 
The partition wall should be thin so that the foul air may be 
heated. 

c. The windows should be made so that the upper half can be 
lowered. If storm windows are used provision should be made so 
that the room can readily be flushed with fresh air at any time. 

4. Materials 

a. Hollow tile, brick, cement blocks or wood. The building 
should be , properly painted in order to preserve it and to add to 
its appearance. 

b. Maple floors, oak finish, plastered walls and ceiling. In 
case, brick or cement blocks are used the plaster should not be put 
on blocks or brick directly. 

5. Cleaning. The floors should be scrubbed and the building 
otherwise thoroughly cleaned before the opening of school in the 
fall and during the Christmas and spring vacations. If the floor 
is not oiled, it should be mopped once a month or oftener. For 
oiling use a solution of two parts boiled linseed oil and one part 
turpentine. 



in. EQUIPMENT 

1. Bookcase. See page 9, "Lessons on the Use of the School Library." 

2. At least one-half dozen pamphlet boxes and several dozen folders. 
See Lessons on the Use of the School Library, p. 76-9. 

3. A library catalog case. 

4. A well-selected library of at least 150 volumes, kept in good re- 
pair, necessary rebinding done, and dilapidated books discarded. An 
up-to-date encyclopedia of six or more volumes and costing about 
twenty dollars should be included. For further particulars, see "Les- 
sons on the Use of the School Library," p. 8-12. 



STANDARD SCHOOL 377 

5. Single steel adjustable desks of suitable sizes properly arranged 
and adjusted to the sizes of the pupils. The seats should be adjust- 
able and separate from the desks. Cheap furniture of this kind is 
likely to prove unsatisfactory. 

6. At least two or three good chairs 

7. Bartlett dictionary holder 

8. A small school bell 

9. Wall clock 

10 jrlobe — pendent preferred 

11. Also one six-inch globe 

] 2. A set of maps each in a separate single spring roller case 

13. A set of blackboard outline maps in separate single spring roller 
cases 

14. 1 spring roller blackboard about 4x6 ft. 

15. At least three sets of supplementary readers for each of the three 
lower grades 

16. Set of textbooks for the teacher's use 

17. 1/^ doz. Secondary School dictionaries or ones equally good 

18. 1 up-to-date unabridged dictionary 

19. Seat work material for primary children 

20. A printing outfit (set of wooden types) 

21. A bulletin board of soft wood, cork matting or green burlap 

22. A Stewart pencil sharpener or one equally good 

23. Sanitary drinking fountain, kept sanitary 

24. Pens and pen holders bought in quantities 

25. A Tip-top duplicator or one equally good 

26. A paper cutter. 

27. Ink furnished by the keg; it is much cheaper 

28. Wire mats sunk in floor of vestibule so that they are on a level 
with the remainder of the floor 

29. An automatic foot scraper. 

30. Sweeping compound, kept in a damp place 

31. A few dustless dust cloths 

32. Floor and wall brushes 

33. Snow shovel 

34. Waste baskets 

35. Paper towels 

36. Liquid soap and container 

37. Sink or wash basins 

38. A looking-glass for the teacher, one for the girls and one for the 
boys 

39. Slate blackboard — at least one hundred square feet — with chalk 
trough at base of board, running entire length of board. A width of 
four feet Is recommended, especially in the front of the room. 

40. Crayons of good quality and enough felt erasers for the largest 
class 

41. A box of colored crayon 

42. Toilet paper 



378 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 

43. Ash pail and shovel 

44. Chantillon Scales for weighing milk 

45. Covered Babcock milk tester 

46. Kerosene stove or alcohol burner 

47. A few dishes — -See Domestic Science, p. 3 63. 

48.^ A few carpenter's tools — See Manual training, p. 342 

49. Some of the common measures, such as pint cup, peck measure, 
etc. 

50. Pointers 

51. Thermometer, tested for accuracy 

52. Hygrometer 

53. Supply closet 

54. Suitable desk and chair for the teacher 

"55. Necessary apparatus for nature study and agriculture 



IV. DIOCOKATION 

1. Building. For helpful suggestions, see School Beautiful, pub- 
lished by the State SuperinteuLlent. 

a. Tinting of walls. Use light tints, especially for the ceiling. 
A light cream for the ceiling and a light tan for the walls make 
a good combination. 

b. Pictures. A few good pictures properly hung, p. 91 

c. Statuary. A few well Chosen busts and friezes 

d. House plants to be used during the spring and fall 

e. Window boxes for seed germination, plant and tlower study 

f. Best work of pupils and classes properly hucg; '^ut taken 
down after a week or two 

g. Program, calendar, and blackboard decorations done artis- 
tically by the teacher 

n. Aquarium. Goldfish, pollywogs, etc. 

i. Rearrange decorations at least once each teru: 

2. Grounds. For specific suggestions, see current and back n;i:n 
bers of the Wisconsin Arbor Day Manual; also The School Peauti- 
ful. 

The school grounds sTiould be beautified by planting such bull^, 
shrubbery, vines, etc. as will blossom before the spring term oi 
school closes or will grew with little care during the summer 
months. 

a. The planting of the bulbs of the tulip, peony, narcissus, and 
such other plants in the fall as will blossom in the spring before 
school closes. 

b. Hardy shrubbery such as the Thunberg and other barber- 
ries, spirea or bridal wreath, etc. 

c. The haidier varieties of the common rose. 



STANDARD SCHOOL 379 

d. The Virginia creeper, commonly known as five-leaf ivy, the 
morning glory, and the wild cucumber may be used for screening 
outbuildings and also for decorative purposes. 

Note. The five-leaf ivy is not poisonous, but the three-leaf is 
and should not be handled. 



V. THE TEACHER AND THE TEACHING. PUPILS. 

The above includes only the physical make-up of a standard coun- 
try school. More important still are the teacher, the teaching, the 
management, and the attitude of the public. The reasonable use 
of the schoolhouse as a social center is also an important element. 
These subjects are treated in the present Manual, the pamphlet 
How to Have a Good School, and other department publications 
distributed to the schools of the State. 

The best number of pupils for a one-teacher country school is 
from twenty to thirty. Fewer than fifteen or more than forty is 
likely to preclude the best results. 



INDEX 



Pagre 

Accidents, teaching preven- 
tion of 241, 251 

Accounts 129. 131, 150 

Addition ... .125, 126, 127, 130, 134-6 

Adenoids 238, 249 

Agricultural bulletins 232-5 

Agriculture 217-35 

Course of study 219-20 

General suggestions 217-8 

Practical projects 217 

References 231 

Tests and examinations. . . 230 

Textbooks 217 

Treatment of topics 220-30 

Air 166, 243 

Alfalfa 219 

Aliquot parts 120, 122 

129, 133, 145 

Alphabet cards 21 

Analysis of sentences 102 

Animals 199-200, 245 

Antiphonal singing 314 

Arbor Day suggestions 212, 293 

Arithmetic 117-160 

Classes in 122 

Course of study 125-133 

General suggestions 117—124 

Short methods 122, 128 

129, 130, 131, 133 

Textbooks 122, 126 

131, 140, 147, 148, 149, 160 

Articles, teaching the 19 

Assignment of lessons 2-3, 36 

50, 52, 181 

Attendance at school 12, 296 

Austrian method 134, 141 

Authority of teacher 8 

Bank discount 124,133,146 

Banking business 150 

Beef cattle 220 

Bird diagram 209 

Bird house 209, 210, 350 

Birds 190, 198 

208, 210, 226, 231 

Blackboard, use of 20, 50-1 

64, 80, 95, 115, 120, 122, 126, 



Page 
127, 130, 131, 174, 179, 264, 377 

Blanks for reports 12-13 

Blind, schools for 2 39 

Blood 248 

Blue Book, use of 276, 288 

295, 299, 300, 303 

Bones 251 

Book rack 354, 357 

Book reports 41, 74, 76, 180 

Book shelves 356, 359 

Booklets for language work., 59, 75 
Breathing exercises in music • 317 

Bristol board, use of 20 

Buds 214 

Building problems 133, 153 

Bulbs 208 

Bulletins, agricultural 2 32-5 

Business practice . ...130, 133, 154-8 

Cancellation 128,132 

139, 140, 145, 153 
Cards for drill and seat 

vi^ork 21, 26, 28, 120 

Care of the body 237 

Ear 239 

Eyes 238 

Hair 237 

Mouth 237 

Nails 237 

Nose and throat 238 

Scalp . 237 

Skin 240 

Teeth ' 237 

Carpet problems 131 

Cash accounts 131, 150 

Caucus ■ 290 

Celebrations 63, 259 

Circuit court 293, 300, 303 

Circulatory system 247 

Civil government 264, 288-310 

Course of study 290-304 

General suggestions 288-90 

References 310 

Tests for graduation 309 

Textbooks 288 

Civil war 274-6 

Cleaning the schoolhouse. . . 10, 376 



382 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY 



Page 

Clothing 240 

Colonial history 266-7 

Commercial discount 131, 147 

Commission 124, 131, 146 

Complete statements 64, 94 

Completing- stories 93-4 

Complex fractions 124, 140 

Composition woik 65, 70 

74-5, 78, 79, 82, 98 

Compound interest 133, 146 

Concrete problems 119, 125 

126, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133 
Concrete teaching in his- 
tory 254 

Congress 291, 302 

Constitution, state 289, 299-301 

Constitution, U. S. . . .268, 289,301-4 
Constitutional period in his- 
tory 257,268-80 

Contagious diseases ...239, 242, 253 

Contests in spelling 47 

Contests in writmg Ill 

Contractions and abbrevia- 
tions 65, 71 

Conversational exercises. ... 62, 67 
73, 87, 193, 195, 211 

Cooking 362-7 

Copy books 110 

Corn 219, 220, 364 

Corn drier 346, 348 

Correlation 59, 7<'. 

77, 118, 254, 329 

Counting 1^5 

County board 291, 298 

County government 291, 298 

Courtis tei=ts 121 

Critical period 268 

Current events 78, 2 57 

279-80, 295 

DairyinPT 183, 219, 225 

Deaf, schools for 239 

Decimals 124, 130, 141 

Decoration of schoolrooms. . 6, 378 
Definitions, teaching of ... 80, 129 

171, 172 
Denominate numbers. . .131, 132, 141 
Diagram of birds showing 

parts 209 

Diagraming sentences 80 

Dictation exercises 61, 65 

71, 75, 78, 85 

Dictionary work 9, 38, 50 

51, 62, 80 

Digestive system 247 

Diploma examination 101, 158-9 

230-1, 370-3 
See also Tests for graduation 
Discipline in school 7 



Page 

Discount, true 12 3, 133 

Diseases 238, 240 

241, 242, 245, 247, 251, 252 

Disinfection 242 

Division 127, 129, 136 

Domestic science 361—9 

Equipment for 363, 365,367 

General suggestions 3 61-2 

Outline of work 362-368 

References 368-9 

Dramatization 40,64,69,119 

Dramatization in arithme- 
tic 119, 125 

Drawing 38, 326-342 

Course of study ..... 329-41 

General suggestions 326-9 

Materials required 326 

References 341 

Drill exercises 1, 2 

Arithmetic 120, 121 

122, 126, 129, 130, 132 

Civil government 288 

Geography 174 

History 257 

Language 66, 67, 71, 75 

, see also Mechanics of 
language 

Reading 26, 29, 31, 34, 38 

Spelling 50-3 

Writing 112-4, 115 

Duplicator 21 

Duties (customs) 124, 133 

148, 292, 302 

Ear 239, 251 

Ear training exercises 28, 318 

Earth worms 211 

Election, general 290 

Election, primary 290 

Elimination in arithmetic, 
see Omissions 

Emergencies 241, 251 

Equipment, school 

Domestic science . . . .363, 365, 367 

Drawing 326-30 

Experiments simple 201 

General list 242, 376-8 

Manual training 342 

Playground 374 

Reading 20-2 

Writing 109 

Estimating, practice in ....125,126 

127, 132 
Examinations, see Diploma 
examinations 

Exchange 124, 133, 149 

Exhibits, agricultural . .218, 219, 223 

Exhibits in drawing 329 

Exhibits in writing Ill 



INDEX 



383 



Page 
Experiments, simple physical 

and chemical 202-8 

Acids, bases and salts 208 

Air 202-4 

Carbon dioxide 205 

Electricity 208 

Evaporation and conden- 
sation 206 

Heating- and burning 2 06 

Hydrogen 205 

Magnetism 208 

IJght 208 

Lime water 204 

Nitrogen 204 

Oxygen 2 03 

Solution and crystaliza- 

tion 206 

Expressive reading 2 6, 34, 37 

Eye 238, 250 

Factori'ig 128, 137 

Farm accounts 133, 152 

Farm problems in arithme- 
tic 132, 133 

First day of school, sugges- 
tions for 10-11 

First month of school, sug- 
gestions for 11 

First week of school, sugges- 
tions for 11 

Flies 284 

Flowers 196, 214 

Foods 251 

Fractions 124, ISO, 139-40 

Free textbooks 13 

French and Indian War .... 267 

Frogs . 215 

Fruit growing . .- 219, 229, 245 

Game board 352, 355 

Games 3S drill exercises. . . . 31, 120 

257 
Games for correction of 

errors 66, 72 

Garden work 211, 219, 227 

General election 290 

General exercises 12, 236 

257, 290-5 

General history 220, 263 

264, 266, 280-4 

General saggestions 1 

Geographical stories 69, 169 

Geography 1 61-187 

Africa 185 

Asia 1 8 i) 

Australia 185 

Chtsses in 1«1 



Page 

Courses of study . . .' 162-87 

IThird and fourth years 162-72 

Fifth year 173-78 

Sixth and seventh years 178-86 

Europe 184-5 

General suggestions 161 

Home 162-71 

Matbomatical 185-6 

North America 173,178-83 

References 187 

South America 178, 183-4 

Tests 186 

Textbooks 17 3, 178 

United States 173-4, 181-2 

Wisconsin 169, 182-3 

Girls' clubs 223, 362 

Globe 172, 185-6, 254 

Government, county, see 
Government 

Government, state 2 92, 298-301 

Government, town, see Town 
government 

Government, U. S 291,292 

295, 301-4 
Grammar, outline for study 

of 78-87 

Greatest common divisor . . .123, 128 

Health, public 236, 241, 294 

Heating and ventilation. ... 4, 243 

251, 376 

Hectograph 21, 121 

History 254-287 

Classes in 256 

Colonial 266-7 

Concrete teaching 254 

Course of study 258-80 

First and second years 258-9 
Third and fourth years 2 59-61 
Fifth and sixth years . . 261-4 

Seventh year 264 

Eighth year 264-80 

General 256, 263 

264, 266, 280-4 

General suggestions 254—7 

Source material 255 

Stories 63, 68, 73 

Stories, list of 262-3 

References 286 

Tests and examinations. . 285-6 

Textbooks 255 

Wisconsin 267, 271 

273, 276, 278, 280 

Holidays 291-3 

Home gardens 211,22 7 

Home geography 162-71 

Home reading 41—3 

Home study 43-4, 118 



384 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



Page 

Homonyms 71, 75 

Humidity of air in school- 
room . .5, 243, 376 

Hygiene and sanitation 236-53 

Course of study 237-51 

General exercises 236 

General suggestions 236 

References 253 

Tests for graduation 252 



Imaginary settings for lan- 
guage work 93 

In loco parentis 8 

Indian life, stories of . .258, 259, 267 

Infectious diseases 240-2 

Insects 192-3, 211, 219, 230 

Insurance 133, 148 

Interest 124, 131, 145-6 



Joints, charts showing kinds 

of 359 



Knots, chart of 



343 



Land survey 132,183 

Language 57-108 

Course of study 62-87 



First and second year. . . 
Third and fourth year . . 
Fifth and sixth years . . . 
Sevenih and eighth years. 
Functions of 



62-7 

67-72 

73-6 

76-8 

5" 

General suggestions 57-62 

Habits GO 

Motives for study of . . . . 58 

Outline in 103-8 

References 102 

Suggestions for specia.i 

phases 87-101 

Tests for graduation 101-2 



60, 89 

12 

222 

6 

5 

191 

12 

123, 128 

Legislature 292, ^S9 

Legumes 219,222 

Letter writing 58, 71, 75, 98 

Library school, see School 
library. 

Library lossons .*. . . 33,37 

39, 41, 42, 44, 76, 176, 181, 219, 
246, 255, 264, 297, 362 



Textbooks 

Laws 

Clerk to furnish register, 

Noxious weed:^ 

Obscene writing, etc . . . . 

Outbuildings 

Protection of birds 

Teacher to keep records. 
Least common multiple . . . 



Page 

Library reading 22, 23 

33, 37, 39, 42, 44, 45, 62, 74, 
102, 169-^70, 174, 180, 261, 287, 
291, 371 
Lighting of schoolrooms .... 6, 375 

List of 100 songs 315 

Literary society in school 58, 75, 78 

liOngitude and time 123, 185-6 

Lymphatic system 248 

Making change 12 5, 12 6, 15 4-5 

Management of schools. ... 7— 8, 290 

Manners and morals 9 

Manual trainmg 342-60 

Course of study 346-60 

General suggestion? 342-5 

References 360 

]\raps 92, 171-2 

173-4, 178-80, 254, 256, 274, 377 

Materials for drawing 32G--9 

Materials for experiments . . 201 

Materials needed for manual 

training 342 

Materials used for writing. . . 109 

Mathematical geography ... 185 

Measurements 119, 125 

126, 127, 129, 130, 132, 133 
Mechanics of language, les- 
sons on 66, 71, 75, 78 

Memoriter and rational 

studies 1 

Mental arithmetic 120, 125 

128, 129, 130, 132, 145 
Methods of teaching read- 
ing 17-18 

Methods of teaching spell- 
ing 50-54 

Metric system 124, 133, 154 

Mosquitoes 244 

Multiplication 125, 126 

127, 128, 129, 130, 133 

Muscles 251 

Music , 311-25 

General suggestions 311-4 

References 325 

Special topics 322-3 

Summary 324 

Work to be done 314-22 

Myths and hero stories .... 259 

Narcotics 9,251 

Naturalization 295, 302 

Nature study 188-216 

General suggestions 18 8-9 

Outline of topic 189-216 

Fall topics 190-8 

Winter topics 198-208 

Spring topics 208-16 

Methods 189 

Viewpoint 188 



INDEX 



3S5 



Page 

Nervous system 250 

North America, geography 

of 173-6, 178-83 

0"bjects used in teaching 

arithmetic 117, 140 

Obscene books, etc., law 

for 6 

Omissions in arithmetic .... 123—4 
Oral arithmetic, see Mental 

arithmetic 
Oral book report ... .41, 74, 76, 180 

Oral language work 59, 62 

67, 73, 76, 93 

Oral reading 34 

Oral spelling ^ 54 

Organization of a one-room 

school 10 

Organs or" purification 249 

Original problems 119, 127 

129, 130, 133 
Original work in language . . 93 

Orthoepy, the teaching of . . 8—9 

Outbuildings 5-6, 244, 374 

Outline for geography study 175, 181 

184 

Outline in language 103-8 

Outlines, making of 73, 76 

102, 174, 256 
Outlines for picture study . . 9 

P^aper cutter 20, 327, 377 

Paragraphing 75 

Parliamentary practice .... 75, 77 
289-90, 304-9 

Partial payments 124, 133, 146 

Percentage 131-2, 133, 141-4 

Perception cards, use of. .25, 28, 120 

Personal accounts 133, 152 

Personality of the teacher. .. 17 

Phonics 9, 18 26, 27-31 

Phonograph, use of, in 

school 322-3 

Physiology . 246-51 

Pictures and picture study. . 23,36 
62, 68, 73, 77, 89-91, 224-5, 254, 
328,-878 

Plants, care of 227, 245 

Plays and games, see Games 

Poems, study of 23, 39 

64, 69, 74, 77, 91-3, 254 

Pointer use of 19 

Potatoes 219, 222, 364 

Poultry .' 219,224 

Practical projects in agricul- 
ture 217 

Prevention of accidents 241,251 

Prevention of diseases . . .236, 240-2 

2 51 



Page 

Primary election 29 i> 

Primers 22-26 

Printing outfit 21,377 

Problem-- without figures . . . 131-2 

Profit and loss 132, 147 

Program of study and reci- 
tation 1 4-1 5 

Programs, special, see Spe- 
cial school programs 

Proportion 133 

Public health 236, 237, 294 

Purifying organs 249 

Qoaranhne 242 

Ratio and proportion 133 

Readers, supplementary .... 22 

Readers, test for judging. . , 22 

Reading 16-45 

Course of study 25—44 

First year 2 5-3S 

Second year 34—8 

Third and fourth years 38-40 

Fifth and sixth years. . . 40—2 
Seventh and e i g ht h 

years 42-4 

Definition of 35 

General suggestions 16-24 

Importance of . 16 

Kinds of 17 

Mechanical helps 20 

Methods of teaching 17 

Oral 34 

Recitation in 26 

Silent 36, 43 

Reading at home 41, 43 

Reading numbers 12 5, 126 

127, 129 

Receipts for cooking 369 

Recitation, mechanics of. . .24, 50—3 

Recitations, number of ... . 3 

Reconstruction ''76 

Records to be kept by 

teacher 12-13, 64 

Rectangles 129 

Reference books 

Agriculture 231-i> 

Arithmetic 159-fiO 

Civil government 310 

Domestic science 368 

Drawing 341 

Geography 187 

History 286 

Hygiene 253 

Language 102 

Ma^niial training 3G0 

Music 225 

Physiology' 25:-' 

Reading 4S 

Spelling 55-6 

Writing ] 1-6 



386 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 



Pag-e 

ileference books for picture 

study 90 

Register 12 

Relics 254 

Relief maps 172 

Ueprodiiction of stories 63, 68, 73--4 

I'lespiratory system 2 id 

Rtvolufiouary war 2G7 

Rhythm in music 313, 321 

Roads 2'10 

Rote singing- 311 

Rules foi- spelling 54 

S:'nitat'on 236-46 

Savings banks 133 

School attendance 12, 29G 

School credit for home 

work 217, 231, 304 

School discipline and man- 
agement 7—8 

School fairs and contests ..218, 361 

School grounds 7,244 

293, 374, 378 

School library 13,46 

255, 289, 376 
see also Library lessons 

School lunches 362 

School management a phase 

of civics 290 

School paper 58, 75, 77 

School program 3, 14-15 

School records 10, 12-13, 64 

School survey 17 6-8 

Schools for the blind 239 

Schools for the deaf 2 39 

Scope of the course of study 8 

Seat work 21, 50 

98-101, 118, 329, 377 

Seat work books 21 

Seating of schoolrooms 6-7,377 

Seed testing box 348, 350 

Selection of songs 312, 314-5 

Sewing 3 67-8 

Short methods in arithme- 
tic 122, 128, 130, 131, 133 

Sickness, losses due to 241-2 

Sight words, teaching of ... . 30 

Silo 220, 229 

Singing by parents 324 

Slang 60, 88 

Sleep 243 

Soil 219, 228 

Songs, list of 314-5 

Songs, selection of 312, 314-5 

South America, geography 

of 183-4 

Special holidays 291-S 

Special senses 2 50-1 



Page 

Special school programs .... 11, 58 

75, 77, 223-4, 290, 295, 361 

Spelling 39, 47-56, 60 

Course of study 49-55 

First and second years. . 49 

Third and fourth years 49-51 
Fifth to eighth years. . . 51-5 

General suggestions 47—8 

Mistakes 4 8 

References 56 

Studies in 48 

Tests for graduation ..... 55 

Textbook 51 

Spelling matches 47 

Spelling tablets 47 

Square root 124, 133 

Standard one-teacher school 374—9 

Standard time 123, 18 5 

State board of health 2 42, 2 51-2 

Stimulants g 9,251 

Stocks and bonds 124, 133, 147 

Story telling 63,68,73,256 

Subjects to be taught in 

school . .: 8-9 

'Subtraction 12 5-7 

Suggestive drill exercises in 

writing . . . .' 112-4 

Supplementary readers . . . ..♦ 22, 377 
Supplies for schools; see 
Equipment, school 

Synonyms 77,88 

"(T,)" meaning of in the 

Manual 21 



Taxes 132, 149 

292, 301, 302 
Teaching pupils how to 

study 1, 35-6 

117-8, 174, 256 

Teaching the articles 19 

Teaching use of textbook . . .122, 255 
Tests for graduation 

Agriculture 230-1 

Arithmetic 158-9 

Civil government 309 

Geography 186 

History • 285-6 

Hygiene 252 

Language 101—2 

Music 324 

Readiijg 45 

Spelling ?5 

Writing 116 

Tests for judging primers 

and readers 22 

Tests of a good language 

book 6 0-1 



t 



INDEX 



387 



Page 
Textbooks 

Agricuitut-e 217 

Arithivietic 122, 3 26 

131, 132, 140, 147-8, 160 

Civil government 2S8 

Geography 173,178,181,184 

Grammar 80 

History 2 5b 

LangLinge 60, 89 

Nature study 189 

Pliysiology .♦ 246 

Spelling 51 

Thermometer 5, 378 

Time tests in arithmetic. . . .121, 128 
130, 131, 143 

Toads and frogs 197, 215-5 

Town government 292, 297 

Trachoma 239, 242 

Trees 194-6, 199, 212-4 

Triangles 129 

Uniform lists of stories, 

poems and pictures .... 61-2 

United States, geography 

of 173-6, 181-4 

U. S. money 126, 127, 129, 130 

Ventilation and heating .... 4, 243 

251. 376 



Page 

Village gcvernment 29 7 

Vocabulary study 64, 69 

73, 77, 87-3 

Water 162, 206, 243, 374 

Weeds 219, 221 

Well on school ground 374 

Wisconsin geography . . . .16 9, 182-3 
Wisconsin histor3^ see His- 
tory of Wisconsin 

Writing 19, 64, 109-16 

Course of study 114-6 

General suggestions 109—14 

References for teachers. . 116 

Suggestive drill exercises 112-4 

Tests lOr graduation 116 

Writing contests Ill 

Writing exhibit.3 Ill 

Writing numbers 125—9 

Written book report 41 

Written spelling 54 

Written work in arithmetic 122 

Written work in language. . .58—9, 64 

70, 74, 78, 95, 98 



'Year," meaning 
Manual 



of 



10 



